1. Organize new information into meaningful chunks
2. The greater the distance between items, the weaker the spread.
2.1. Fruit and apple vs vegetable and apple
3. Memory
3.1. Role of Memory?
3.1.1. Research
3.1.1.1. How to represent the world
3.1.1.2. How we learn
3.1.1.3. How we think
3.1.1.4. How we reason
3.1.1.5. How we solve problems
3.1.1.6. How we communicate
3.1.2. Insights
3.1.2.1. How we store
3.1.2.2. How we retain
3.1.2.3. How we access
3.1.2.4. How we adapt to
3.1.2.5. How we use information
3.2. Theoretical Contributions
3.2.1. Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Sbriffin, 1968)
3.2.1.1. Type of Coding
3.2.1.1.1. Visual Coding
3.2.1.1.2. Phonological Coding *Most common type for STM
3.2.1.1.3. Semantic Coding *Most common type for LTM
3.2.1.2. The Sensory Store
3.2.1.2.1. Records information coming from all senses; incoming sensoru information remains briefly
3.2.1.2.2. Most attention on:
3.2.1.2.3. Purpose:
3.2.1.3. Short-term/ Working Memory (STM)
3.2.1.3.1. Retains information briefly (30 second)
3.2.1.3.2. Receive input from sensory memory and long-term memory
3.2.1.3.3. Function not just as repository for brief storage BUT also a system that:
3.2.1.4. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
3.2.1.4.1. Store large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time
3.2.1.4.2. How does information pass into LTM?
3.2.1.4.3. Retrieval of information from LTM
3.2.1.5. But…why do we forget?
3.2.1.5.1. Failure to encode
3.2.1.5.2. Failure to retrieve
3.2.1.5.3. Interference
3.2.2. Tulving’s Model (Tulving, 1972)
3.2.2.1. Categorizes memory
3.2.2.1.1. Declarative memory
3.2.2.1.2. Procedural
3.3. Implications on learning?
3.3.1. Students to be encouraged to use both verbal and imagey coding
3.3.2. Encourage deeper processing thought elaboration
3.3.3. Encoding and retrieval are interconnected. Successful retrieval depends on meaningful encoding process
3.3.4. Learning increases when students make meaning (rather than take meaning)
4. Mental Representation
4.1. Truth Value
4.1.1. Proposition expressed in language-like fashion
4.1.2. Example
4.1.2.1. The statement "Robin is my friend." can either be true or false
4.1.3. Language
4.1.3.1. means of encoding concepts from which propositions are constructed and the propositions themselves
4.2. Propositional Representations
4.2.1. Entities that are not yet converted into ordinary language
4.2.2. Hypothesis
4.2.2.1. Are comprised of meaningful concepts/relation combinations
4.2.2.1.1. Not yet transformed into language
4.2.2.2. Meanings/Propositions are easier to remember
4.2.3. Can be translated into ordinary language when needed
4.2.3.1. To talk and think about them
4.3. Propositional/Semantic Networks
4.3.1. Thought rests on mental representation of propositions
4.3.2. Associative
4.3.2.1. Moving from one idea to another
4.3.3. How does associative process work?
4.3.3.1. Meanings and links are stored in propositional, semantic network
4.3.4. Theory of Spreading Activation
4.3.4.1. Features
4.3.4.1.1. If activation is strong enough, it will be attended to
4.3.4.1.2. The greater the number of irrelevant paths, the weaker the spread.
4.3.4.2. Create a computer program that stimulates human memory search
4.3.4.2.1. Supported by neuroscientific evidence
4.3.4.3. Concept
4.3.4.3.1. When a concept is being processed, its node is activated to a certain level
4.3.4.3.2. When the name of a concept is mentioned, the node representing that concept will be activated.
4.3.4.4. Assumptions
4.3.4.4.1. Activation released from a concept note continues
4.3.4.4.2. Activation decreases over time
4.3.4.4.3. The greater the number of concepts stimulated, the less activation available for each one
4.3.4.4.4. Action becomes cumulative
4.4. Types of Information in Memory
4.4.1. Semantic
4.4.1.1. Abstract and general knowledge about facts and concepts
4.4.2. Episodic
4.4.2.1. Contains events that we have experienced personally
4.4.2.1.1. rare case
4.4.3. Procedural
4.4.3.1. Various skills. Knowledge how to do something.
4.4.3.1.1. how to drive car
4.4.3.1.2. how to cook rice
4.5. Semantic Network/Propositional Network
4.5.1. school
4.5.2. bus
4.5.2.1. blue
4.5.2.2. yellow
4.5.2.2.1. banana
4.5.2.3. green
4.5.2.3.1. coconut
4.5.3. student
4.6. Cognitive Capabilities
4.6.1. Obtain
4.6.1.1. Sensation
4.6.1.2. Perception
4.6.1.3. Attention
4.6.2. Store
4.6.2.1. Memory
4.6.2.2. Representation
4.6.3. Utilize
4.6.3.1. Day-to-day
4.7. red
4.8. Representation of Concepts
4.8.1. Introspection
4.8.1.1. Use computer to help us understand more about mind
4.8.2. Empirical inquiry method
4.8.2.1. observation-hypothesis
4.8.2.1.1. concepts are represented in our brain as a network
4.8.2.1.2. associated concepts
5. Scripts
5.1. Simple, well-structured sequence of events
5.2. Idea of scripts
5.2.1. to network theory of propositional representations
5.2.2. theory of spreading activation
5.3. Example
5.3.1. Going to class: -Get to class 10 minutes before start -Wait for the previous students to leave the class -Enter the class and find a seat -Take notes for the lecture -Leave when the lectures ended
6. Problem Solving
6.1. Involves
6.1.1. Path for reaching goal
6.1.2. Goal state
6.1.3. An initial state
6.2. Types of probelms
6.2.1. Comprehension
6.2.2. Transformation
6.2.3. Arrangement
6.3. Difficulty of problems measured by
6.3.1. Length of time taken to have the solution
6.3.2. whether it is finally solved
6.4. How can be solved?
6.4.1. Human beings operate as information processing system
6.4.1.1. concepts-relations-memory
6.4.2. Familiarity with domain of problem
6.4.2.1. expert : -vast experience gained, straight to the points, organize knowledge differently -working from larger knowledge base & larger repertoire of procedures
7. Introduction to the Psychological Approach
7.1. The study of internal mental operations
7.1.1. Computer as a metaphor of mind
7.1.2. Mental functioning = representation & computation
7.2. Tasks of Cognitive Psychologists
7.2.1. To explain the workings of the brain
7.2.2. To illuminate that framework
7.3. Knowledge in long term memory
7.3.1. Declarative Knowledge
7.3.1.1. Semantic Memory
7.3.1.1.1. General knowledge about concepts abstracted fromexperience
7.3.1.2. Episodic Memory
7.3.1.2.1. Definite time/place located in personal histories
7.3.2. Procedural Knowledge
7.3.2.1. Implicit Memory
7.3.2.1.1. Knowing "how"
7.3.2.1.2. Automatized
8. Concept, Categories and their Connection
8.1. Concept
8.1.1. An idea about something that provide a mean of understanding the world
8.1.1.1. Mental representation
8.1.2. Ability to categorize objects or events or a domain
8.2. Categories
8.2.1. A set of object that "belong" together
8.2.1.1. Coherence
8.2.2. To organize or point out aspects of equivalence among other concepts
8.2.2.1. Based on common features/similarity to a prototype
8.3. Concept & Categories : Connection?
8.3.1. The central to how human represent knowledge about the world
8.3.1.1. Concept
8.3.1.1.1. Mental representation of a category
8.3.1.2. Category
8.3.1.2.1. A set of object "belong" together
8.3.2. Mechanism for Concept & Category Formation
8.3.2.1. Sensory Input
8.3.2.1.1. Taste
8.3.2.1.2. Sound
8.3.2.2. Abstraction
8.3.2.2.1. Emotions
8.3.2.2.2. Others abstraction
8.4. Due to shared elements in associated thoughts
8.5. Categorization Study : Approaches
8.5.1. 3 Theoretical Approaches to Categorization
8.5.1.1. The Exemplar Approach
8.5.1.1.1. Every instance of a category stored in memory
8.5.1.2. The Feature Approach
8.5.1.2.1. Form categories by specifying characteristics(features)
8.5.1.3. The Prototype Approach
8.5.1.3.1. Average values for the features characterizing the entity
8.5.1.3.2. Store a prototypical representation of the concepts
8.6. Summary
8.6.1. Categories : Experimental Evidence by Berlin & Kay (1969)
8.6.1.1. Researches presented the participants with 320 color chips ranging from red to violet
8.6.1.2. The participants decides which categories the color were from
8.6.2. Sapir - Whorf Hypothesis(Linguistics Relativity Hypothesis)
8.6.2.1. Language determine how we think and perceive the world ,people who speak different language
8.6.3. Category loss
8.6.3.1. Difficulty in recognizing and describing something which used to be recognizable and describle
8.6.3.2. Due to injury to a particular part of the brain
8.6.3.2.1. Agnosia
8.6.3.2.2. Prosopagnosia
8.6.4. Recap
8.6.4.1. Human acquire concepts and engage in the process of categorization
8.6.4.2. Human construct categories from instances
8.6.4.2.1. Concept = representation we have of the totality of a category
9. Memory
9.1. Long Term Memory (LTM)
9.1.1. Store large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time.
9.1.1.1. How information pass into LTM
9.1.1.1.1. Elaboration
9.1.1.1.2. Mnemonic
9.1.1.1.3. Rehearsel
9.1.1.2. Retrieval of information from LTM
9.1.1.2.1. Process of locating information that has been previously stored in LTM.
9.1.1.3. Why do we Forget
9.1.1.3.1. Failure to encode
9.1.1.3.2. Failure to retrieve
9.1.1.3.3. Interference
9.1.1.4. Tulving's Model
9.1.1.4.1. Categorizes memory according to type rembembered.