1. Chapter 10
1.1. Mary and Louis Leakey–Paleoanthropologist–Researched Hominin’s in East Africa– Paid very little •Motivated by big questions–Where are humans originally from?
1.2. Discovery; Recovery; Lab Work; Understanding -- fundamental scientific theory
1.3. What are the difference between humans and apes?–Bipedalism or Upright walking–Non-honing chewing–Material culture–Speech–Hunting & cooperation–Domestication of plants & animals
1.3.1. Bipedal Locomotion–1800s researchers highlighted brain size and intelligence as a key human attribute–Only intelligent species could •Language •Produce tools •Other human activities–This theoretical thought lacked critical analysis on natural selection and adaptation
1.3.1.1. Nonhoning chewing:
1.3.1.1.1. Primate–male aggression–Diastema for large canine–Use molars for sheering–Bottom pre-molar honing or sharpening canine Sheer leaves and fruit –Wear down behind canine
1.3.1.1.2. Hominin: Apical wear or wear at the tip of the canine–Pre-molars and molars show more wear •Crush more
1.3.2. Foundational behavior in hominin
1.3.3. Came before large brains/craniums by millions of years
1.3.4. walking on 2 legs distinguishes hominins from apes
1.3.5. This is bipedal locomotion: Position of the foramen magnum–S Shape of the spine–Ilium of pelvis is short –Length of the leg–Valgus knee, pelvis aims femur inward–Foot Arch–Lack of opposable toes
1.4. Why did hominins emerge?
1.4.1. Developed during late Miocene–10-5.3 mya •Why did homininae emerge?–Darwin Hunting Hypothesis •Bipedalism >>>freed hands>>>developed weapons and tools>>>reduced need for canine>>>language emerged>>>language influence large brains
1.4.2. Darwin Hunting Hypothesis:
1.4.2.1. Earliest evidence of tools 3.3 mya • Brain expansion started 2 mya •Cooperative hunting didn’t happen until 2 mya–Connection that bipedalism effected increase in cranium and shrinking of teeth is weak
1.4.2.2. 17 mya huge adaptive variety of apes •Change in climate and habitat reduced variation in apes •Perhaps competition reduced variation •Darwin's hunting theory not proved –Hunting was not a reason for the development of hominin
1.4.3. Patchy Forest Hypothesis:
1.4.3.1. Peter Rodman & Henry McHenry–African forest shrinking to grassland–Two legs energetically more efficient than four
1.4.4. Provisioning Hypothesis:
1.4.4.1. Owen Lovejoy Males compete for access to females– Females need more food supports more infants–Lower inter-birth intervals
1.4.4.1.1. Anatomies and behaviors co-evolve:•Monogamy •Pair bonding »Reduced canine size •Cooperation •Bipedalism -- Sexual dimorphism not found in hominin fossils
1.5. Who were the first?
1.5.1. 2001,Chad, Central Africa–6–7 million years old •Forest near lake–M. Brunet–Habitat: •Forests and grassland --- Sahelanthropus tchadensis
1.5.1.1. Anatomies: Small brain (350 cc)•Homo sapien (1,450 cc)•Likely bipedal •Foramen magnum positioned slightly back •Nonhoning chewing–Smallish canines •Massive brow ridge
1.6. The first tool makers
1.6.1. Oldowan stone tools (2.6 million years)–Older than homo genus. •Australopithecus first stone-tool makers; not Homo genus
2. Chapter 11
2.1. Eugene Dubois •Inspired by Darwin and Haeckel •Gave up teaching anatomy and headed to Indonesia in search of fossils
2.1.1. Java, Solo River •Found skull, femur, molar •Femur identical to modern humans •Brain case 1000cc•Too small to be human •Too big to be ape
2.1.2. Eugene Dubois •Pithecanthropus erectus or Homo erectus •This was not the earliest of our genus •Dubois was incorrect to look for our earliest ancestor in Indonesia
2.2. Homo Habilis:
2.2.1. Homo habilis(handy man)–2.5–1 million years ago–Increased use of material culture–Larger brain •Rounded skull–Australopithecus-like body–Possible ancestor of Australopithecus garhi
2.2.2. Smaller teeth and shorter face •Reduced chewing complex •Evidence of increase tool use–Stone tools found at many H. habilissites–Muscles and precision grip •Tools were not necessary for survival
2.3. Homo Erectus
2.3.1. 1.8myato 300,000 year ago–Foundin Africa, Asia & Europe–Anatomy •Larger brain–Brain case-900cc•Small back teeth•Low, long, thick skull with small chewing muscles•Some gracile some robust
2.3.2. Found in Africa; Lake Turkana --
2.3.2.1. 1.6 mya•Young adolescent •80% of skeleton•66 inches•5ft•Enormous increase in size. •Small Browridge
2.3.3. anatomy: Anatomy & Behavior •Long legs and shortarms –Signsof increase bipedalism •Arch in feet and close toes •Increased body size •Increased tool use
2.3.4. In Asia:
2.3.4.1. 1.8 mya-300,000 year ago •Dmanisi, Georgia •Evidence •Five Skulls and other bones •H. erectus colonized Asia and spread quickly •Anatomy and Behavior •H. habilis type facial feature •Cranial cap. 600 to 750 cc •First sign of tuberculosis in Turkey
2.4. How are habilis and erectus different?
2.4.1. H. Habilis same size as australopithecus–H.Erectus was remarkabley large in heigt and size•Increase of 33% males•Increase of 37% female•Brain case increases by 33%–650ccto 950cc•Smaller teeth and mascatory complex
2.4.2. Why did they change?
2.4.2.1. Climate change and food supply–Increased access to animal protein •Butchering or scavenging–Use of fire dates back 1 mya •First consumption of processed or prepared foods–Behavior •Use of tools and technology •Sharing is universal societal element increase brain size
2.5. Patterns of Evolution in H erectus
2.5.1. Differences:
2.5.1.1. Dmanisi•650 cc–Zhoukoudian•1,200 cc–Decrease in brow ridge–Decline in robusticity–Decreased demand on the face •Behavior –Tools use–Expanding territory–High level of gene flow
2.5.1.2. Fire: they used tools for butchering and they used fire for cooking -- fire allowed for them to spread; increased access to high quality foods and brain development
3. Chapter 12
3.1. Neander Valley Fossils
3.1.1. FeldhoferCave, Germany 1856•Fossils found a limestone rock quarry •Normally they would be destroyed, but these fossils were not •They brought fossils to a schoolteacher eventually reaching Rudolf Virchow
3.1.2. Fossil was found at the same time at Pleistocene animals -- not a member of modern Homo Sapiens
3.1.2.1. Fossils found weren't human
3.1.2.1.1. Long, low skull and bowed; Some believed it was a modern human with rickets and arthritis •They had found a Neandertal
3.2. What is modern about modern humans?
3.2.1. Physical anthropologist define H. sapien based on distinctive anatomical characteristics
3.2.1.1. Above the neck: •High vertical forehead •Small browridges •Small face •Small teeth •Projecting chin
3.2.1.2. Below the neck: •Gracile •Narrower bones •Archaic vs. Modern H. sapien
3.2.2. What do these fossils tell us about modern human origins?
3.2.2.1. Archaic Homo sapiens–Earliest records emerged350,000 ybp –Asia,Africa, and Europe–H.erectus •Large face, large browridge, thick cranial bones
3.2.2.2. Anatomy •Large face with browridge •Large, heavily worn front teeth •Near-modern brain size
3.2.2.3. Behavior: increased cultural complexity
3.3. Single origin and then dispersal or regional continuity
3.3.1. H. sapiens evolution begins 500,000 to 350,000 ybp •Varieties first at many sites •Africa 200,000 ybp •Europe 35,000 ybp •Globally 25, 000 ybp •Hypothesis on H. sapiens origin: •Out of Africa hypothesis •Replaced archaic •Multiregional hypothesis
3.4. In Asia and Europe:
3.4.1. Asia: Ngandong, Indonesia, –Narmada, India and Dali, China •Large and robust •Longs and low skull •Browridgeis massive Brain case 1,100 cc
3.4.1.1. LATE ARCHAIC: Shanidar, Iraq–45,000 years old–Elderly male –Severe wear on teeth–Very large brain–Eye injury; arm amputation; foot with arthritis, fracture on upper face •Lived until old age
3.4.2. Europe: France, Greece, Germany, Spain, and England •Brain case 1,200 cc
3.4.2.1. LATE ARCHAIC: Neandertal; Eastern Europe–130,000-30,000ybp•Croatia–Fossils and tools •Round orbits •Wide space between eyes •Wide nasal aperture •Protruding midfacialregion •Huge front teeth–Potentially cannibal •Butcher marks on human bones similar to animal bones–Evidence at many sites
3.5. Dietary Adaption:
3.5.1. H. sapiens and H. erectus had extensive material culture •Reduction in face, jaws, and back teeth–Tools changed the way teeth were used–Increased reliance on front teeth for eating and as tools
3.6. LATE Archaic H. Sapiens
3.6.1. Similar general trends in Archaic’s.–Increased brain size.–Reduced teeth.–Decreased skeletal robustness
3.6.2. Regional Adaptions: Adaptation to cold.–Neandertal •Wide and tall nasal apertures •Projecting face •Occipital bun •Large front teeth •Stocky body •Short limbs
3.6.2.1. Europe: cold adaptions --- skull had larger nasal aperture (heat the air) Large infraorbital foramina–blood flow to face
3.6.2.2. Body: Wide body –Adaptation to cold climate •Short limbs
3.7. Intelligence:
3.7.1. Buried dead–Various sites in Europe and Asia–Deliberately positioned in fetal position–Many bodies found in pits–Symbolic burials
3.7.2. Spoken Language: identical to modern human–Brain laterality–FOXP2 gene–Could express full range of sounds–Neandertal had speech apparatus
3.7.3. Symbols: Necklaces–Body pigments–Art dates back 10,000 years before H. sapien
3.8. Early modern h.s:
3.8.1. Modern Homo sapiens–Upper Pleistocene fossil records are in Africa, Asia, and Europe •H. sapiens had reached extreme environments •New technologies and subsistence patterns–Increased use of art •Anatomies:–Smaller face, tooth, jaw–Larger brains
3.8.2. In AFRICA
3.8.2.1. modern Homo sapiens•200,000 to 6,000 ybp–Evidence •Omo, Aduma, Herto, and Bouri Ethiopia–200,000—80,000 ybp–Anatomies: •High forehead, round skull •Reduced face and teeth •Brain case 1450 cc •Gracile skeleton–Archaic anatomies •Relatively long face •Significant brow ridge
3.8.2.1.1. Anatomies: skull robustness was not eliminated with evolution of modern h.s -- diet dependent
3.8.3. In ASIA
3.8.3.1. 100,000-18,000
3.8.3.1.1. Skhul V, Israel•90,000 ybp •Not fully modern H. sapiens •Cohabitation of modern Homo sapiens and Neandertals–Zhoukoudian •First modern H. sapien outside of Africa •60,000 ybp–Anatomies •Modern chin •Reduced or missing supraorbital torus
3.8.4. In EUROPE
3.8.4.1. 35,000- 15,000
3.8.4.1.1. Romania–35, 000 ybp•Oase2–5 year old child–Neadnertal features •Limb proportions •Wide body •Wide cheek bones •Robusticity •Could be evidence of interbreeding
3.9. Where did they come from?
3.9.1. Out of Africa; multiregional hypothesis; multiregional continuity model
3.9.1.1. Modern H. sapiens lived with Neadertal for thousands of years–mtDNA show minimal genetic evidence–Nuclear DNA Euro. are 1-4% Neandertal
3.9.1.2. Additional research shows H. sapiens may have interbred with other hominins
4. Chapter 13
4.1. domestication
4.1.1. The process of converting wild animals or wild plants into forms that humans can care for and cultivate. (page 419)
4.2. neolithic
4.2.1. The late Pleistocene/early Holocene culture, during which humans domesticated plants and animals. (page 419)
4.3. superfoods
4.3.1. Cereal grains, such as rice, corn, and wheat, that make up a substantial portion of the human population's diet today. (page 428)
4.4. masticatory-functional hypothesis
4.4.1. The hypothesis that craniofacial shape change during the Holocene was related to the consumption of softer foods. (page 435)
4.5. osteoarthritis
4.5.1. Degenerative changes of the joints caused by a variety of factors, especially physical activity and mechanical stress. (page 441)
4.6. periosteal reaction
4.6.1. Inflammatory response of the bones' outer covering due to bacterial infection or to trauma. (page 443)
4.7. treponematoses
4.7.1. A group of related diseases (venereal syphilis, yaws, endemic syphilis) caused by the bacteria Treponema, which causes pathological changes most often to the cranium and tibiae. (page 443)
4.8. dental caries
4.8.1. A disease process that creates demineralized areas in dental tissues, leading to cavities; demineralization is caused by acids produced by bacteria that metabolize carbohydrates in dental plaque. (page 444)
4.9. ameloblasts
4.9.1. Cells that make tooth enamel. (page 446)
4.10. iron deficiency anemia
4.10.1. A condition in which the blood has insufficient iron; may be caused by diet, poor iron absorption, parasitic infection, and severe blood loss. (page 446)
4.11. heme iron
4.11.1. Iron—found in red meat, fish, and poultry—that the body absorbs efficiently. (page 446)
4.12. nonheme iron
4.12.1. Iron—found in lentils and beans—that is less efficiently absorbed by the body than is heme iron. (page 446)
4.13. porotic hyperostosis
4.13.1. Expansion and porosity of cranial bones due to anemia caused by an iron-deficient diet, parasitic infection, or genetic disease. (page 447)
4.14. cribra orbitalia
4.14.1. Porosity in the eye orbits due to anemia caused by an iron-deficient diet, parasitic infection, or genetic disease. (page 447)
5. Chapter 1
5.1. There was a switch to corn agriculture; this meant that there was a loss of nutrition + health + well-being in Natives
5.2. Armchair Anthro: used explorers accounts to build on the understanding of different cultures; relied on materials instead of research; often racist and colonial
5.3. Physical Anthro: 2 concepts
5.3.1. All humans are a product of their evolutionary history; Hominins: human like ancestors; included biological changes that have brought humans to present form
5.3.2. Combination of genetics and environment: climate; activities; social cultural practices
5.4. Biocultural Model: biology to culture and behavior to environment to biology (it's a cycle)
5.5. Pg. 11 6 Key Anatomical + Behavioral Differences: bipedalism; non-honing canine; material culture; hunting; speech; dependence on domesticated foods
6. Chapter 2
6.1. Charles Darwin: collected samples to develop his theory
6.1.1. Darwin's Theory drew on information from five scientific disciplines: geology, paleontology, evolutionary biology, taxonomy + systematics, and demography
6.2. Species: a group of related organisms that can interbred and produces its own offspring
6.3. Habitat: specific area of the natural environment in which an organism lives
6.4. Descent with Modification:
6.4.1. Adaption: changes in physical structure, function, or behavior that allow an organism/species
6.4.2. Natural Selection: "process by which some organisms w/features that enable them to adapt to the environment; survive + reproduce which increases said features"
6.5. Common Ancestry: adaptive radiation: diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adapted to specific environmental niches
6.6. Hierarchy of Life: Where everything is in a list; this does a disservice to the rest of the environment/species that are around
6.7. Evolutionary Synthesis:
6.7.1. mutation: a random change in a gene or chromosome, creating a new trait that may be advantageous, deleterious, or neutral effects on the organisms
6.7.2. the sun can create mutations
6.7.3. genetic drift: random change in allele from one generation to the next, with greater effect in small population; this is due to change
6.7.4. gene flow: admixture, or the exchange of alleles btw two populations; occur due to migration
7. Chapter 3
7.1. DNA
7.1.1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid: double stranded molecule that provides the genetic code for an organism; consists of phosphate, sugar, and 4 types of nitrogen bases
7.1.1.1. nitrogen bases: Adenine; Thymine; Guanine; Cytosine (complementary bases = A to T, and G to C)
7.1.2. Has revolutionized: agriculture, medicine + disease, and forensic science
7.1.3. 6 ft. of DNA in a cell
7.1.4. templet for protein generated codes/genes for a function -- cells, tissues, organs, hair
7.1.5. pg. 76 = amino acids
7.1.6. nDNA: homoplastic -- same DNA in skin cells, heart muscle, + bore cells -- blood cells have no nucleus
7.1.7. mtDNA: 37 genes; different amount of mtDNA among different parts of body
7.1.7.1. Mitochondrial DNA: 37 genes traced only from mother; hetero-plasmic -- mix of more than one type of organellar DNA; can help trace origins of ppl through mtDNA haplogroups
7.1.8. goes from DNA -> Genes -> Chromosomes -> Genome
7.2. The Cell
7.2.1. is the basic unit of life for all organisms
7.2.2. is the factory that makes you: there are two types of cells; single-cell and multi-cell
7.2.3. prokaryotes: single-celled with no nuclear membranes/organelles + single strand DNA
7.2.3.1. eukaryotes: multi-celled organism that have a membrane bound nucleus containing both the genetic material + specialized organelles
7.3. Somatic Cells + Gametes
7.3.1. Somatic Cells: diploid cells that form the organism, issues, and other parts of an organism's body
7.3.2. Gametes: haploids, sexual reproductive cells; ova + sperm; ova (23 chrome); sperm (23 chrome)
7.4. Replicating the Code
7.4.1. Replication: process of copying nuclear DNA prior to cell division; each new daughter cell receives a complement of DNA
7.4.2. Meiosis: genetic contribution from each parent -- production of gametes through DNA replication + two cell divisions, creating 4 haploid gametic cells -- genetic contribution from each parent
7.4.3. Mitosis: occurs once zygote is fertilized by parents
8. Chapter 4
8.1. Malaria parasites in a mosquito's stomach = to sickle cell-anemia which causes red blood cells to become sickle shaped
8.2. Demes: refers to a local population of organisms that have similar genes, interbreed, and produce offspring
8.3. "Genetic material within a breeding population is referred to as the gene pool"
8.4. Species: refers to the breeding populations producing viable (fertile) offspring --- species are defined on the basis of reproductive isolation
8.4.1. Reproductive Isolation: an mechanism that prevents two populations from interbreeding and exchanging genetic material
8.5. Different Genetics:
8.5.1. Microevolution: happening in a few generations
8.5.1.1. example: wolves --- turning into different breeds of dogs
8.5.2. Macroevolution: happening in many generations
8.5.2.1. example: eohippus --- turning into a horse
8.6. Equilibrium: condition in which the system is stable, balanced, and unchanging
8.6.1. This can be found on pg.96 -- Hardy-Weinberg law of Equilibrium + the def.
8.6.2. They explain that if no change then the gene frequencies are going to stay the same forever
8.6.3. If there is change then evolution is happening within the population
8.6.4. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium assumes: no gene flow, mutation, or natural selection
8.7. Population Genetics: the studying the changes over time in gene pools
8.8. Mutations: this is the only way we get any heritable change in the structure or amount of genetic material
8.8.1. they occur at random and can occur in any given cell --- "only source of new genetic variation in a population"
8.8.2. Different types of mutations:
8.8.2.1. noncoding DNA: nonfunctional, do not affect health, well being or survival
8.8.2.2. Coding DNA: effects visible genetic expression
8.8.2.2.1. having mutations here can have either + or - consequences
8.8.2.3. point: replacement of a single nitrogen base with another base, which may or may not affect the amino acid for which the triplet codes.
8.8.2.4. synonymous point mutations: neutral point mutation, creates an altered triplet, but the alteration produces the same amino acid as the original amino acid (NO CHANGE TO THE AMINO ACID)
8.9. Founder Effect: "Occurs when a small segment of a population (fewer than several hundred members) becomes reproductively isolated from the larger population" (lecture slides 57)
8.9.1. An example of this is the absence of the A and B alleles in Native American populations
8.9.2. in other words: this is when a smaller population diverges or shifts genetically from the original population
8.10. What are transposable elements?
8.10.1. these are mobile pieces of DNA that copy themselves into entirely new areas of the chromosomes --- said to "insert themselves in another"
8.10.2. "An entire piece of a chromosome can be moved to another chromosome, can be placed differently on the same chromosome, or can be positioned in a chromosome backwards." (lecture slide 28)
8.11. peppered moth: they are an example of directional selection and their ability to evolve to better suit their environment
8.11.1. Directional selection --- is when there is the favoring of one allele over the other causing shift in one direction
9. Chapter 5
9.1. racial stratification: was written into the laws of many states -- many ppl had little trouble with this -- there were claims it was god's will -- this was also based on intellectual + moral superiority
9.2. there are two people who have studied these ideas
9.2.1. Samuel George Morton, was a scientist and physician, who collected and measured skulls from all over the world (collecting over 6000)
9.2.2. Morton = persons intelligence was related to the size of his or her brain. "The larger the brain the more intelligent the person."
9.2.3. Stephen Jay Gould reexamined Morton’s data in 1977, and concluded that Morton’s summaries
9.2.3.1. came to the conclusion that Morton's data was selective, plus didn't have gender distinct -- black people's skull were larger -- this was a really big error because of the people that have felt the effects of the racist narrative
9.3. Boas: skull shape varies + isn't fixed -- he also examined immigrant families and their heads
9.4. racial inequality is social not biological!
9.5. Geneticist R. C. Lewontin: "Tested the race concept by studying global genetic variation. " this lead to the idea that there was more human variation within a population than between populations (slides 20)
9.6. Geographic Clines: this is the gradual change in some phenotypic characteristics from one population to the next -- this is the reason for specific biological traits
9.6.1. an example of this is skin pigmentation -- strongly associated with UV radiation
9.7. The Growth Cycle: Conception through Adulthood -- this is on page 132 in the book.
9.7.1. Fertilization; Prenatal Stage; Postnatal stage; adult stage
9.7.2. Adult stage: aging -- social, cultural, biological events that occur over a lifetime; then you have senescence -- this is a reduction of the bodies ability to respond to stress
9.8. Adaption: Meeting the Challenge of Living
9.8.1. Genetic
9.8.2. Developmental (Ontogenetic) -- Individual level -- Happens during critical growth periods -- Not reversible
9.8.3. Acclimatization (Physiological) -- Individual level -- Can be reversed
9.8.4. Cultural (Behavioral) -- Cultural adaptations -- Chewing on coca leaves in high altitude
9.8.5. Adaptions happen so that we can remain and maintain homeostasis
9.8.5.1. "Functional adaptations: adaptations that occur during an individual’s lifetime (acclimatization and developmental) to increase fitness in a given environment." (slide 53 and on page 144 of the book)
9.8.5.1.1. an example of this can be climate adaptions! Vasodilation: moves the blood from the body’s core to the surface which is flushing and then you have Sweating: cools the surface but is less effective in areas of the body with dense hair covering.
9.8.5.2. Body and Shape also have a lot to do with how we adapt to our climate: definitions can be found on page 145 of the book
9.8.5.2.1. Bergmann’s rule: Heat-adapted mammals will have higher surface-area-to-body ratios.
9.8.5.2.2. Allen’s rule: Heat-adapted mammals will have long limbs.
10. Chapter 6
10.1. Primates: taxonomy; anatomy; ecology + geography; socio-ecology
10.2. Classification: Linnaeus 1st described primates physical anthropology -- through behavioral traits, adaptive traits, and evolutionary traits
10.3. Sir Wilfred E. Le Gros Clark (1895-1971)
10.3.1. Primates are adapted to life in the trees-arboreal adaptation.
10.3.2. Primates eat a variety of foods-dietary plasticity.
10.3.3. Primates invest a lot of time and care in a few offspring -parental investment.
10.4. Skeletal Structure:
10.4.1. Primates have a versatile skeletal structure
10.4.2. Ulna and radius rotate forearm. •Phalanges allow hand and foot dexterity •Opposable thumb (or big toe) allows digit to touch other fingers. •Man primates have opposable big toes or halluces
10.4.3. Mobile Joints: hands and feet -- precision (finger dexterity) + power grips
10.4.4. Distinctive spinal column with five vertebral types: Cervical •Thoracic •Lumbar •Sacrum •Coccyx
10.5. Vision
10.5.1. Primates have an enhanced sense of vision
10.5.2. Forward-facing eyes + overlapping fields of vision (depth perception)
10.5.3. Most primates see in color + better see insects in vegetation + adaption to from nocturnal to diurnal
10.5.4. Higher primates have a fully enclosed eye orbit. Some primates have a postorbital bar instead of full closure.
10.6. reduced snout
10.6.1. reduced reliance on senses of smell and hearing
10.6.2. higher primates have lost the rhinarium (this is known as the wet nose)
10.6.3. some strepsirhines retain the wet nose
10.6.4. smell is a secondary sense in most primates
10.7. diets and teeth
10.7.1. Dietary Plasticity: Primates Eat a Highly Varied Diet, Teeth Reflect Versatility
10.7.2. primates have retained primitive characteristics in their teeth
10.7.3. Dental traits in four functionally distinct tooth types:1.Incisors 2.Canines 3.Premolars 4.Molars
10.7.4. reduced number of teeth can be found on slide 23 of chapter 6
10.7.5. Evolved different dental specializations and functional emphases
10.7.5.1. Premolars and molars used for grinding
10.7.5.2. Molars have different types of cusps.–High, pointed: insects–Crests: shearing leaves–Low, round: fruit and seeds
10.7.5.3. molars
10.7.5.3.1. Bilophodont (two ridge tooth)•Old world monkeys are bilophodont•Y-5 (cusps in the shape of a “Y”)•Apes and humans have Y-5
10.7.5.4. Primates have evolved different dental specializations and functional emphases–Most primate incisors are flat, vertically orientated and used to prepare food.–Unfused mandible – Strepsirhines’ lower incisors and canines are elongated, crowded together, and projecting forward. •Tooth comb useful for grooming
10.8. Brains
10.8.1. Development period is related to larger brain size in primates.
10.8.2. More brain is dedicated to sight and less to smell (olfactory bulb)and hearing
10.9. Two methods of classifying primates:
10.9.1. Traditional or gradistic. -- Suborders based on anatomical complexity
10.9.1.1. Two suborders: 1. Prosimii (prosimians): lower primates •Lemurs, Lorises, Tarsiers 2. Anthropoidea (anthropoids): higher primates •Monkeys, Apes, Humans
10.9.2. Evolutionary or cladistics -- Separates primates into two clades -- Derived characteristics -unique characteristics present in only one or few species
10.9.2.1. 2 classes: Strepsirhini (strepsirhines)- retains primitive characteristics–Rhinarium, heightened sense of smell, specialized diet and behaviors–Lemurs, lorises, galagos •Haplorhini (haplorhines)- lost a number of primitive characteristics–Tarsiers, Monkeys, Apes, Humans
10.10. Catarrhines
10.10.1. Humans have unique anatomical traits due to obligate bipedal locomotion
10.10.2. –Foramen magnum location–Pelvis shape–Length of limbs–Curvature of the spine–Angle of femur
11. Chapter 7
11.1. Goodall documents Chimpanzee behavior: Making and using tools as well as hunting meat. Highly intelligent Developed close social bonds
11.2. Many behavior had been confined to the realm of humans
11.3. Primates express themselves socially
11.3.1. this is through a range of behaviors: kinships; ranks; ages; and sexes
11.4. Primates form various long term social relationships
11.4.1. grooming groups; food factions; travel teams
11.5. Social groups are influenced by:
11.5.1. food availability; environment; competition --- individual primate species combine different residence patterns
11.6. American Biologist: Edward O. Wilson
11.6.1. Natural selection favors social behaviors; genes of those who practice social behavior pass; some behaviors innate other learned or cultural --- example: caring for infant + learning to use tools.
11.6.2. Males + Females play different roles; males will compete more and demonstrate sexual dimorphism --- canine, body size
11.7. KEY TERMS:
11.7.1. Sexual selection-the frequency of traits that change due to those traits’ attractiveness to members of the opposite sex
11.7.2. Dominance-the ability to intimidate or defeat another individuals in a pairwise or dyadic encounter
11.7.3. Altruistic–refers to a behavior that increase the donor’s inclusive fitness; that is the fitness of the donor’s relatives
11.8. Females:
11.8.1. Expand more energy creating and caring for offspring; they also compete with other females for access to resources
11.8.1.1. Hierarchical ranks pass from mother to daughter in some primates. --- example: the video under discussion board for week 10
11.8.2. Females select mates based on: physical appearance, and position in social hierarchy
11.8.3. Some female behaviors encourage support and investment of their offspring
11.9. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy’s hypothesis: –Researched langur monkeys–Males kill nursing infants so that its mother stops lactating, resumes ovulation, and becomes sexually receptive.
11.10. William Hamilton
11.10.1. Talks about altruistic behaviors being based on kin selection --- this will then "increase the animal's fitness"
11.10.1.1. Some behaviors are: Alarm calls --- Grooming --- Food sharing --- Caregiving --- Patrolling territory
11.10.2. Kin election is strongly consistent with individuals group or natal group identification
11.10.2.1. Shows up as: Attack individuals from other groups–Will patrol territory –May connect to the earliest forms of human aggression
11.11. Jane Goodall
11.11.1. Asserts chimpanzees material culture through termite fishing
11.11.1.1. Features:
11.11.1.1.1. "1.Extraordinarily intelligent with complex cognitive skills 2.Mothers have taught their young to use tools 3.Tool production and tool use can be highly localized" (lecture slide 29)
11.12. How primates acquire food:
11.12.1. Foraging: "take up to 50% of primates' waking time" (Larsen);
11.12.1.1. Mothers: need 2 to 5 more food than non-mothers --- this will enable them to have healthier offspring; live longer; and give birth at an earlier age
11.12.2. Feeding patterns:
11.12.2.1. three things to consider: quality of food; distribution of food; and availability of food
11.12.2.2. "territories have specific carrying capacities" (lecture slide 22) --- this means that places closer to the equator has more defined seasons -- this means less consistent food sources for primates
11.12.2.2.1. this puts a restriction on the range primates can live in
11.12.3. Chimpanzees and Hunting:
11.12.3.1. Use male group to attack and patrol
11.13. Communication:
11.13.1. Primates express themselves socially through a range of behaviors --- touching, hugging, mouthing, mounting, lip smacking, vocalization, greeting, and grooming
11.13.1.1. There are different forms of vocalizations
11.13.1.2. vocalizations can range from soft to loud
11.13.1.2.1. they may be indicate emotional state; predator/s; labels for the environment; the name of resources; or even to monitor political landscapes
11.13.1.3. Affixation: small linguistic unit/s added to the beginning or the end of the word
11.13.2. Gesturing: use their hands, limbs, and bodies
12. Chapter 8
12.1. Geologist William Smith:
12.1.1. Principle of Faunal Succession hypothesis – the relative positions of strata and the kinds of fossils found in the layers were the same throughout Britain.
12.1.2. Produced the first geological map of British isles
12.2. Fossils and the way they line up:
12.2.1. fossil document evolution of life can be used to: reconstruct geologic time and place fossils in their time periods --- Document phylogeny, biological change, and evolutionary relationships Document environmental factors influencing evolution of life
12.3. Fossils
12.3.1. latin for dug up
12.3.2. Remains of once-living organisms changed into rock; minerals in bone and teeth; replaced by rock-forming minerals like iron and silica
12.3.3. Types of fossils:
12.3.3.1. Sedimentary: Rock covered in caves with sediments or types of soil, sand, rock
12.3.3.2. Volcanic Ash: covers bodies preserving remains
12.3.3.3. sometimes DNA can be found within fossils; teeth and bone
12.3.3.4. Chemical segments of bone can also be analyzed to reconstruct diet
12.3.4. Gradualism
12.3.4.1. long and slow evolution
12.3.4.2. primate fossils ranging over ~2 million yearss
12.3.4.2.1. Show a gradual compaction of the front teeth in the lower jaw
12.3.5. punctuated equilibrium: rapid change
12.3.6. Key stages:
12.3.6.1. Paleontologists have not discovered all the fossil-bearing rocks around the world.
12.3.6.2. Fossils have been preserved in some places and not others.
12.3.6.3. Rock sequences containing fossils are not complete in all places.
12.3.7. Index fossils: Rodents, pigs and elephants demonstrate change Fossil pig molars- over time become taller and longer. Irish Elk- site predates 10,600 yBP.
12.4. Taphonomy and Fossilization:
12.4.1. is the study of what happens to an organism's remains after death --- death; flesh is eaten; body is covered with no access to oxygen;
12.5. How old is Earth:
12.5.1. Earth = 4.6 billion years old
12.5.1.1. Earth's history: Three established eras of time in Earth’s history Paleozoic-ancient Mesozoic-middle Cenozoic-recent
12.5.2. Life = 3.5 billion years old
12.6. Pangaea: connected all continents; Tectonic: shifts separated the contients
12.6.1. relative age: event (such as the formation of a geological stratum) or object (such as a fossil or an artifact) with respect to another.
12.6.1.1. Numerical age: age of an event of object is expressed in absolute years
12.7. Steno's Law of Superposition: principle that the lower the stratum or layer, the older its age; the oldest layers are at the bottom, and the youngest are at the top.
12.8. stratigraphic correlation: process of matching up strata from several sites through the analysis of chemical, physical, and other properties.
12.8.1. Chemical characteristics make this possible across vast regions; volcanic eruptions produce ash with an individual signature
12.9. Cultural Dating: uses changes in material culture (such as stone tools) to establish a chronology
12.10. Dendrochronology: counts the rings of trees; each ring marks one year of growth; only works when wood is preserved as in the american southwest
12.10.1. dating: certain material contain isotopes -- two or more forms of a chemical element --- some are stable; some aren't --- these are radioisotopes ---; then there are unstable isotopes decay and have a half-life
12.10.1.1. Radiocarbon dating: measures the half-life of carbon isotopes --- this is the most accurate for only the last 50,000 yBP
12.10.2. radioisotope 40 K in igneous rock associated with fossils --- it decays very slowly from its unstable form to a stable gas 40 Ar
13. Chapter 9
13.1. Primate Origins and Evolution: Ancient primate fossils can be found in many continents
13.1.1. Fossil records demonstrate three key developments: Emergence of first primates–Origins of higher primates-anthropoids–Origins and evolution of major anthropoid groups Monkey, ape, and humans
13.1.2. Why did they emerge?
13.1.2.1. selective pressures led to first primates; may have been all three theories that led to the first primate; primates express many of the behaviors theorists described
13.1.3. first true primates: Paleocene-66 mya–Plesiadapiforms-Proprimate •Western North America, Western Europe, Asia, and Africa •No postorbital bar or convergent eyes; •Lacked opposability; claws; small brain; •Specialized rodentlike teeth–Eocene -56 mya •Plesiadapiforms went extinct •NOT A PRIMATE!!
13.1.4. Adapoids Omomyids: western united states, western europe, africa, and asia
13.1.4.1. adapids: diurnal; vertical incisors; sexually dimorphic
13.1.4.2. omomyids: nocturnal; dental comb; short snout
13.1.5. Early Anthropoids: Contained variety of primates •Oligopithecids–35 mya–Earliest anthropoid ancestor–Egypt •Parapithecids–2.1.3.3 dental formula–Egypt •Propliopithecids–32-29 mya–Aegyptopithecus–Africa
13.2. Arboreal Hypothesis
13.2.1. adaptions to life in trees; hands for grasping and hold branches; binocular vision for depth perception; reduced reliance on sense of smell
13.3. Visual Predation Hypothesis (Cartmill)
13.3.1. hunting in tress; "Argued other mammals (squirrels) live in trees and did not evolve as primates–Highly specialized visual apparatus–Fine motor skills and grasping digits–Used to catch small prey" (lecture slides chapter 9 slide 12)
13.4. Angiosperm Radiation Hypothesis (Sussman)
13.4.1. fruit eating in trees; "Grasping hands and feet are an adaptation to eating fruits and flowers–Majority of diet consist of fruits–Dates back to early Cenozoic" (lecture slides chapter 9 slide 13)
13.5. Eocene Euprimates: Eocene saw massive period of global warming -- larger expanses of evergreen topical forest --- results may have been adaptive
13.6. Early Catarrhines
13.6.1. Aegyptopithecus: 18 lb–Arboreal quadruped–Monkey/ape ancestor–Large saggital crest •Saadanius–Saudi Arabia, 28 mya–2/1/2/3 dental formula–Larger than Aegyptopithecus–Before split between Old World monkeys and apes •Ancestral apes and monkeys were present in Egypt and East Africa
13.7. Coming to America
13.7.1. Eareliest mokeys evidence of Perupithecus found in Santa Rosa, Peru 36 mya •Followed by Branisella found in Salla, Bolivia 26 mya •Similar dentition of modern platyrrhines
13.7.1.1. How anthropoids got to south america
13.7.1.1.1. 1st hypothesis from North to South America --- no evidence support the 1st one
13.7.1.1.2. 2nd: from africa to south america
13.8. Apes started in Africa and dominate the miocene primate world:
13.8.1. Proconsulids: Diversity of species varied anatomically 17–22 million years ago–Anatomy Y-5 molars, honing canines 2/1/2/3 dentition wide and flat teeth •No tail •Front and hind limbs same lengths–Behavior •Lived in open woodlands to tropical habitats •Diet of leaves, nuts, fruit
13.9. Apes leaving africa
13.9.1. Expansion out of africa --- middle miocene ~ 17 mya --- land bridge between europe, asia, and africa opens up ---
13.9.1.1. In Europe: Dryopithecus–Great apes called Dryopithecids–Anatomy --- Canines sharp and tusk like --- Body like modern apes --- Enamel grew slowly --- Longer forelimbs --- Larger brains–Behavior --- Diet of fruit --- Arm hanging and arm swinging --- Took longer to age
13.10. Gigantopithecus: 0.5-0.8 millions years ago -- 660 lbs and 10 ft tall
13.10.1. Oreophticids (swamp ape)