1. Assess the importance of the role of governments reducing the risk of tectonic hazards overtime (TOPIC 5AandB) - Agree Overall
1.1. Governments are effective at Educational and building Programmes - Modifying Vulnerability
1.1.1. Japans literacy rate is 99%. educational programmes in every level of educational system, national earthquake day on 1st september
1.1.1.1. Nepals introduction of go bags training between 2011 and 2015 4000 trained to deliver the usage of the go bag and their scheme to train teachers, masons and students in earthquake safety
1.1.2. Japans 400km 12 billion tsunami shield and 90% of tokyos building built to aseismic standards, less than 15% felt unprepared
1.1.2.1. Nepalese building codes, resulted in 0 deaths in bharatpur, a location predicted to lose over 30% of population in an earthquake disaster
1.2. Governments are effective at Monitoring - Modifying vulnerability
1.2.1. JMA and NSET for earthquake, italys VRS and indonesias CVGHM for volcanoes
1.2.1.1. VRS has placed 4 seismograph stations on mount etna, 95% of eruptions are detected
1.2.2. Warning systems etc (expand)
1.3. Governments are effective at modifying loss following a tectonic event
1.3.1. 100,000 of Japanese self defense force rapidly mobilised, 300,000 prefabricated buildings, nepals 300 humanitarian organisations
1.3.1.1. Christian aid and red cross help to reduce loss of life and homelessness
1.3.2. Nepal struggles with reconstruction, 10 billion cost with a 25 billion gdp
1.4. However the government cannot modify the magnitude or type of event
1.4.1. Attempts at modifying the actual tectonic event like lava diversion channels off of mount etna, but these would be ineffective against hazards like pyroclastic flows
1.4.2. Japan 400km coastline dropped by 0.5 m meaning tsunami wall became ineffective
1.4.2.1. Phreatic eruption on ontake provided no warning, so sometimes governments can be ineffective in reducing risk overtime
2. Most Effective strategy to manage earthquake hazards is to mitigate against vulnerability (TOPIC 5B) - Agree Overall
2.1. Building and Infrastructure - Modifying vulnerability
2.1.1. Fire proofing and aseismic design since 1995 kobe earthquake, wooden heritage buildings have been fireproofed
2.1.1.1. For example rubber shock absorbers in foundations, and demonstrating aseismic capabilities with Tokyo Skytree, 500 million USD project
2.1.1.1.1. 90% of tokyo's buildings are up to modern aseismic standard
2.1.2. Japan has installed a 12 billion USD 400km long tsunami shield and developed a tsunami warning system improvement run by the JMA
2.1.3. Nepal building codes have become mandatory in urban areas, while not in rural areas (building collapse in rural areas contributed to 8800 deaths)
2.1.3.1. 0 Deaths in Bharatpur as a result of the building codes
2.2. Education - Modifying Vulnerability
2.2.1. Japan has refuge sites onstandby equipped with essentials and it has mapped out 1200 evacuation centres across the city
2.2.1.1. Japan educates on earthquakes and what to do in an event of one throughout their education system
2.2.1.1.1. 1st September is japanese national earthquake day, which increases awareness, hence only 15% of the whole population feel unprepared for an earthquake in 2007
2.2.2. Education programmes to train students and staff in nepalese schools on earthquake safety and training local masons in earthquake resistent buildings, progamme now extends to 50 districts
2.2.2.1. Education is becoming more effective in urban settlements, 2011 to 2015 4000 people trained to raise awareness of the go bag
2.3. 2X However the type and magnitude of the hazard sometimes cannot be mitigated against
2.3.1. Tsunami hazard killed 16000 in japan, earthquake only killed 3
2.3.1.1. Tsunamis are difficult to mitigate against, japan experienced greater social and economic impacts than nepal as a result of the hazard bypassing japans efforts to modify vulnerability
2.3.2. Landslides in Nepal resulted in difficulty of aid reaching these areas however nepal is modifying future vulnerability effectively through a afforestation programme with forest area doubling since 1992 reducing future landslide risk
2.3.3. Japans earthquake was 9.0 30km depth, nepal 7.8 15km depth, nepals cost 10 billion they have a 25 billion gdp, japans cost 180 billion but had a 6 trillion gdp
2.3.3.1. 400km of japans coastline subsided by 0.5km, tsunami overtopped current defenses, killing 16,000
2.4. Sometimes modifying loss in the form of aid and response and recovery
2.4.1. Japan has well-rehearsed recovery plans at allscales which are actioned immediatley, like 100,000 of the japanese self defense force being mobilised in minutes after 2011 earthquake
2.4.1.1. This reduces social impact
2.4.2. Nepal relied on the intervention of international disaster relief agencies, 300 were involved like the UN and NGOs like the red cross and christain aid
2.4.2.1. Nepal does not have access to sufficient self defense resources due to its development, and the delivery of aid to mountainous regions particularily was slow
2.4.3. 300,000 displaced residents in Japan were provided with prefabricated housing units in tsunami damaged areas to prevent homelessness
2.4.3.1. However over 22,000 people still cannot return 10 year on to areas permanently affected by the effects of the quake, like fukushima
3. Paleomagnetism provides the strongest evidence for the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics (TOPIC 1A) - Disagree Overall
3.1. Alfred Wegeners Geological Evidence
3.1.1. Fit of the continents like south america, africa either side of the atlantic and evidence from 290 million years ago glaciation in southern africa, antarctica and india
3.1.1.1. Mountain chains on either side of the atlantic like canada and north scotland are similar
3.1.2. Wegener proposed that using the evidence from the carboniferous period 250 million years ago a large single continent pangea existed, breaking into laurasia and gondwanaland
3.2. Alfred Wegeners Biological Evidence
3.2.1. Similar fossil brachiopods found in autralian and indian limestones and similar fossil repities found in south american and south africa
3.2.1.1. Argued this supports the evidence that pangea split 250 million years ago and separated out
3.2.2. This did however fail to explain the ridge push and slab pull mechanism like the geological evidence, hence has limited use in providing the strongest evidence for continental drift
3.3. Palaeomagnetism
3.3.1. Iron particles align with the earths polarity at the time, technology used to track submarines detected small variations in earths magnetic field
3.3.1.1. Earths polirty revers every 400,000 years, which is echoed in the rocks either side of the mid ocean ridge
3.3.2. Sea floor spreading moves material across the ocean in ridge push process operating on either side of mid ocean ridge
3.3.2.1. The fact the earth isnt expanding suggests that the sea floor is subducted at an ocean trench into the aesthenosphere where it becomes semi molten
3.3.2.1.1. It is significant, but also doesnt show the exact age of the continental crust
3.4. The Age of the Sea floor
3.4.1. 1960's ocean drilling programme to investigate the age of the sea floor, discovered cores up to 7000m deep
3.4.1.1. It found the oldest sediment were near the contienents, but there was no sediment older than 200 milllion years confirming ocean crust is recycled through ridge push and subduction slab pull
3.4.2. However this data failed to show the precise location of the plate boundaries and pattern of tectonic plates
3.4.2.1. But it is largely significant in illustrating the idea of continental drift and subduction in the mantle
3.5. Nuclear tests and Seisometers
3.5.1. Science used for a military purpose from tests in the 1960s revealed the position of the plate tectonics from seisometers detecting seismic activity
3.5.1.1. Detailed maps were produced from the seismic data, showing where the most earthquakes are located concentrated generally in narrow bands
3.5.1.1.1. Suggested that rigig lithosphere was broken into plate tectonics converging and diverging
3.5.2. Largely significant in illustrating the idea of plate tectonics and their locationm but arguably less significant than evidence from ocean drilling and palaeomagnetism in supporting the idea of continental drift
4. Levels of economic development are a significant factor in determining the severity of the impacts of an active volcano (TOPIC 4A) - Agree with Question
4.1. 3X Economic Impacts of earthquakes are determined by levels of economic development
4.1.1. Indonesia has less funding for education, services and healthcare so impacts are more widespread
4.1.1.1. 200,000 evacutated from merapi, causing health services to become overwhelmed
4.1.1.2. Evacuation centres lack sanitation, leading to increased health risks that increase the severity of the impacts
4.1.1.2.1. Impacts of volcanoes can have national scale consequences and effect a greater number of communities
4.1.2. Indonesia is an EDC with 0.5 doctors per 1000 people, japan has 2.5
4.1.2.1. Both eruptions were explosive at convergent boundaries, but with 33% in indonesia working in primary industry the country suffered much more
4.1.2.1.1. Those in primary industry jobs could risk livelihoods
4.1.3. Travel restricted for longer in indonesia, 2 weeks compared to one day in japan after Ontakes eruption
4.1.3.1. Indonesia lost 500 million USD as a result of airport closure, this is a much more devastating impact for an EDC
4.1.3.1.1. Travel restrictions may cause further social disruption by limiting tourism and affecting provision of foreign aid
4.1.3.2. Japan is an AC with many more airports, hence the political and economic impacts of reduced imports are reduced
4.1.4. Tourism was affected in Japan, but likely recovered, 7% of locals in ontake worked in tourist industry and fear of an eruption resulted in negative effects
4.1.4.1. Moreover the ski resort was closed for 6 months following the eruption suggesting extensive economic set backs
4.2. However Environmental Factors are also significant and are not dictated by levels of development
4.2.1. Merapi was a 4 on the VEI, Ontake was only a 3, meaning the eruption was 10 times more powerful, more deaths 367 compared to 63
4.2.1.1. A greater amount of tephra release has more of an impact on agriculture
4.2.1.1.1. Impacted the livelihoods of subsistence farmers on thebanks of merapi, in Japan 30 cabbage farms were decimated, incomparable
4.2.2. Merapi's pyroclastic flow was on a greater scale, which was more destructuve, destroying trees and essential infreastructure
4.2.2.1. Greater scale impacts, but economic development would play a role, as the infrastructure would cost more to rebuild
4.2.3. 200,000 people made homeless, 320,000 displaced by merapis eruption
4.3. Timing and Frequecy of the Eruption are also significant and a not impacted by economic development
4.3.1. 20km exclusion zone set up around merapi, with 3 eruptions across three weeks
4.3.1.1. Frequency of eruptions led to extensive periods of time where people were forced into shelters with poor sanitation
4.3.1.1.1. Occured during indonesias rainy season, lahar hazard increased having devastating agricutlural impacts
4.4. Political/Governmental Impact are partially impacted by levels of economic development
4.4.1. Following lack of warning towards the Ontake eruption, families of the 63 victims sued the local government for 1.2 million
4.4.1.1. This caused a political shift towards ensuring measures are in place to provide warning towards eruptions in Japan
4.4.1.1.1. Proving that level of economic development may not dictate the external political impacts
5. Levels of economic development reduces the impacts of seismic hazards how far do you agree (TOPIC 4B) - Disagree overall
5.1. Environmental Impacts were more significant in Japan despite its eonomic development
5.1.1. Fukushima power plant
5.1.1.1. Meltdown of the reactor resulted in 30km exclusion zone, 4.4 million evacuated
5.1.1.1.1. Nuclear radioactivity will prolong the impacts of the quake over a significant timescale
5.1.2. Tsunami led to large levels of farmland to be flooded by contaminated salts making land uncultivatable having economic impacts as well
5.1.2.1. However in Nepal the earthquake led to disruption of planting season which also had economic impacts leading to food shortages and security issues for high population of subsistence farmers
5.2. The Type of Hazard is not associated with levels of economic development, more significant in japan
5.2.1. Japan had a small number of deaths related to the actual earthquake because of its economic development
5.2.1.1. But it had 16,000 tsunami based deaths, 90% of deaths drowned
5.2.1.1.1. Tsunami swept away transport infrastructure, 23 train stations
5.2.2. Liquefaction occured on nepals unconsolidated sediment in kathmandhu, 8800 deaths
5.2.2.1. Japan was a 9.0, nepal was 7.8mw
5.2.2.1.1. Nepal had avalanches on mount everest killing 20 people, launching a campaign for more pay for everest tour guides
5.3. However economic impacts are partially affected by levels of economic development, significant in both
5.3.1. Nepal had had 10 billion USD damange with a GDP of only 25 billion hence it was a greater percentage than japan
5.3.1.1. Nepals businesses lacked financial reserves, japans businesses had reserves of billions as a result debt in the country increased
5.3.1.1.1. More national impacts as the damage makes up a significant portion of gdp
5.3.1.1.2. However because of its lower levels of development nepal arguably received more aid, Asian development bank provided 200 million USD to aid construction
5.3.2. In Japan MNC's like sony halted production due to a shortage of electricity contributing to fall in japanese stock market
5.3.2.1. 15 ports were destroyed including Sendai port, this could have an impact on long term investment from MNCs, and impact short term trading abilities
5.3.2.1.1. Proving that seismic hazards can have catstrophic economic repurcussions despite their economic development
5.4. Political impacts are affected by economic development however, more significant in Nepal
5.4.1. Nepal was affected to a greater extent politically as the earthquake increased the number of military coups
5.4.1.1. Japans earthquake did not result in an uprising that would threaten the stability of its regime
5.4.1.1.1. Nepal was previously unstable, so earthquake only amplified this as citizens protested regarding the slow delivery of aid to rural regions
5.4.2. However fukushima triggered an international movement against use of nuclear power causing a political fallout
5.4.2.1. Germany used the incident to support a antinuclear campaign in the country
5.4.2.1.1. However economic development did not play a role in the polical issues in japan
5.5. Despite this social impacts are not reduced by levels of economic development, more significant in japan
5.5.1. In japan save the children estimated 100,000 children were affected 2000 orphaned
5.5.1.1. Economic development has an influence on the type of social impact but doesnt impact the scale
5.5.1.1.1. Japan had more deaths and an arguably more significant social impact
5.5.2. The earthquake in nepal affected other factors like an increased trafficking of underage girls who have been made homeless by the quake to south asian brothels
5.5.2.1. The scale of people affected in kathmandhu due to the city being constructed on unconsolidated sediment results in greater social impacts