1. SD based on the interaction of dictionary and contextual meaning
1.1. 1. A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts
1.2. 2. - Genuine metaphors. e. g. Through the open window the dust danced and was golden. - Trite/dead metaphors e. g. a flight of fancy, floods of tears, heart of gold. - Sustained or prolonged. e. g. Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down.
1.2.1. The proximity may be revealed: 1) between the symbol and the thing it denotes; e.g. The leaves dropped off his imaginary crown of laurel, he turned to the galt and cried bitterly. 2) between the instrument and the action; e.g. His pen is rather sharp. 3) between the container and the thing it contains; e.g. He drank one more cup. 4) the concrete is put for the abstract; e. g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics). 5) a part is put for the whole; e.g. the crown - king, a hand - worker.
1.2.1.1. Functions: developing literary symbolism, giving more profound meaning to ideas ; delving deeper into the semantics ; helping conciseness, allowing the user to group together many things; adding color and vivid symbolism to ordinary words.
1.2.2. Functions: making the description concrete; expressing the individual attitude; giving a life-like quality to the conversations; offering the fresh ways of examining ideas; dragging readers attention
1.3. Metonymy is based on association (proximity), the name of one thing is used in place of the name of another, closely related to it.
1.4. Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words and they stand in opposition to each other.
1.4.1. Types. Verbal irony - the exact word whose contextual meaning is quite opposite to its dictionary meaning. Sustained irony - the effect of irony is created by a number of statements, by the whole of the text, e.g. “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”. e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).
1.4.1.1. Functions of irony: creating humorous effect; adding vivid images, dragging reader's attention. It may be useful for speakers to be funny when they are also being critical.
2. SD based on the interaction of primary and derivative meaning
2.1. Zeugma is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas.
2.1.1. Two types: those in which the governing word is the main verb, and those in which the governing word is another part of speech (usually the subject noun).
2.1.1.1. Functions: creating confusing or dangling sentences; adding flavor to literary texts; producing a dramatic effect; adding vividness and conciseness to the text; dragging reader's attention.
2.2. A pun (“play on words”) is a stylistic device that involves words with similar or identical sounds but with different meanings. Their play on words also relies on a word or phrase having more than one meaning.
2.2.1. Types. -Homophonic pun. “Why is it so wet in England? Because many kings and queens have reigned there.” -Compound pun. “Never scam in the jungle; cheetahs are always spotted.” -Homographic pun. “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.” -Visual pun. An example of a visual pun would be an image of a fork in the middle of a street, a take on the common “fork in the road” metaphor. -Recursive pun. “May the Fourth be with you”/“May the force be with you,”.
2.2.1.1. Functions: evoking humorous response; enhancing interpretation; use of language in an artistic and clever way; creating vivid images; dragging reader's attention.
3. SD based on the interaction of logical and emotive meaning
3.1. Interjections are words used to express feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions.
3.1.1. Primary interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning. Interjections such as: • Heavens! • Good gracious! • God knows! Bless me! are exclamatory words generally used as interjections. • Some adjectives and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections such as terrible! awfully! great! wonderful! splendid! Ahh, that feels wonderful. Alas! I'm lost in the wilderness. Bah! That was a total waste of time.
3.1.1.1. Functions Expressing feelings and emotions Dragging readers attention.
3.2. Epithet is a word or phrase which expresses some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. It serves to emphasize a certain property or feature.
3.2.1. 1) Single: tired city 2) Chain and phrase: an unnaturally mild day 3) simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): e.g. He looked at them in animal panic. 4) compound: e.g. apple - faced man; 5) sentence and phrase epithets: e.g. It is his do - it - yourself attitude. 6) reversed epithets - composed of 2 nouns linked by an of phrase: • e.g. "a shadow of a smile"; Semantically according to I. Galperin. 1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: • dark forest; careful attention. 2) unassociated with the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.
3.2.1.1. Functions: a descriptive function (to describe characters, views, situations, different things and feelings); an expressive function (to make the texts more expressive and emotional).
3.3. Oxymoron is a SD which consists in the use of an epithet or attributive phrase in contradiction to the noun which it denotes. Oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions.
3.3.1. Single-word oxymorons e.g. bittersweet Logological oxymorons e.g. nook "no" and "ok" Noyes "no" and "yes" Crafted oxymorons e.g. icy hot Doublespeak oxymorons e.g. soft-loud
3.3.1.1. Functions: presenting two seemingly contrasting terms together; expressing a particular sentiment that cannot be otherwise understood; achieving a particular effect that is best understood through contradictions; expressing emotions; dragging readers attention.
4. Personification is a figure of speech in which an idea or thing is given human attributes or feelings. Human characteristics are attributed to nonhuman things. e.g. My computer works very hard. e.g. I wanted to get money, but the ATM died. e.g. This article says that spinach is good for you.
4.1. Types 1) Giving an actual personality to an abstraction. 2) Giving a consciously fictional personality to an abstraction, 'impersonating' it.
4.1.1. Functions to impart dynamic force to description; to create an image; to characterize people or objects; to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer; to drag reader's attention.
5. SD based on the interaction of logical and nominative meaning
5.1. Antonomasia is the result of interaction between logical and nominal meaning of a word.
5.1.1. Types: 1) Putting the proper name of a person, famous for some reasons, a person having the same feature. e.g. Her husband is an Othello. 2) Using a common noun instead of a proper name, e. g. I agree with you Mr. Logic, e.g. My Dear Simplicity.
5.1.1.1. to characterize the person simultaneously with naming him; to make a word which now has a basic nominal meaning acquire a genetic signification, thus supplying the word an additional logical meaning; to revive the logical meaning of the proper names; to give information to the reader about the bearer of the name; to point out the most characteristic feature of a person or event.
5.2. Understatement is a representing things as less, or less strongly, than may be done truthfully. “I am rather annoyed” = “I am infuriated”; “The wind is rather strong” = “There is a gale blowing outside”.
5.2.1. Types: - genuine - fresh and absolutely unexpected, e.g. She was so thin she could have hidden behind a parking meter. She wore a pink hat, the size of a button. - trite - the original meaning has been forgotten, e.g. He wouldn't hurt a fly. Oh! I am a little unwell. Just a scratch.
5.2.1.1. Functions • to intensify the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the mentioned object; • to present the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker; • to develop other figures of speech such as irony and sarcasm by deliberately decreasing the severity of a situation.
5.3. Euphemism is used to avoid some unpleasant things, or taboo things. e. g. To pass away - to die. On the streets -instead of homeless
5.3.1. 1. Abstraction:to pass away 2. Indirection: to go to the bathroom 3. Litotes: being not unattractive 4. Mispronunciation: frigging or shoot, or jeez or cripes. 5. Modification: as in saying someone has socialist leanings rather than labeling them a socialist outright. 6. Slang "under the weather upstairs" instead of "unintelligent"
5.3.1.1. Functions: avoiding taboo; revealing something considered frightening, such as war, disease, unseen things including God, things relating to the death, and animals; showing respect and avoiding uncomfortable feelings of the interlocutors.
6. SD based on the peculiar use of set expressions
6.1. Proverbs are short, well-known, supposedly wise sayings, usually in simple language. e.g. Never say never. You can't get blood of a stone.
6.1.1. Proverbs are expressions of culture that are passed from generation to generation. They are served as some symbols, abstract ideas. Proverbs are usually dedicated and involve imagery. e.g. Out of sight, out of mind.
6.1.1.1. Functions: to impart dynamic force to description; to create an image; to characterize people or objects; to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer.
6.2. Epigram is a SD that is a memorable, brief, interesting, and surprising satirical statement. “There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about.” Oscar Wilde
6.2.1. Epigrams can exist either as individual poems, as parts of longer poems or works of prose, or even as individual prose sentences.
6.2.1.1. Function: pointing out foibles and truths of mankind; leaving a positive impression on the audience; demonstrating pure humor coupled with wisdom; causing listeners and readers to think deeply about the statements; imparting dynamic force to description; creating an image, characterizing people or objects; reproducing the particular mood of the viewer.
6.3. Quotation is a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writing and repeated in order to prove a point or support an idea. They are marked graphically: by inverted commas: dashes, italics.
6.3.1. Functions: to impart dynamic force to description; to create an image; to characterize people or objects; to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer.
6.4. Allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing.
6.4.1. Types. Historical – an allusion to a historical event or period. Mythological – an allusion to a mythological figure or story. Literary – an allusion to a literary text or figure. Religious – an allusion to a religious text, story, or figure.
6.4.1.1. Functions: simplifying complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them.
7. SD based on the intensification of a feature
7.1. The simile is a stylistic device expressing a likeness between different objects. The formal element of the simile is the following conjunctions and adverbs: like, as, as like, etc.
7.1.1. Types: single, paired and clustered. 1. Those that make a comparison using the word ‘as’. E.g. ‘He was as tall as a tree’. 2. Those that make a comparison using the word ‘like’. E.g. ‘She sings like an angel’.
7.1.1.1. Functions Interpreting the object by comparing it with some other objects of an entirely different nature, and producing the desired effect on the reader; clearering meaning; revealing certain feelings of author; stressing the highest degree of quality.
7.2. Periphrasis is a word-combination which is used instead of the word designating an object.
7.2.1. Logical periphrases are based on logical notions, e.g. instrument of destruction. Figurative periphrasis may be based on metaphor and on metonymy, e.g. to tie a knot - to get married. Euphemistic periphrasis is a variety of periphrasis which substitutes a mild, delicate expression for one which seems to be rude or unpleasant.
7.2.1.1. Periphrasis is used to achieve a humorous or satirical effect. e.g. He bore under his arm the instruments of destruction.
7.3. Hyperbole is a SD in which emphasis is achieved through evident exaggeration. “Here is the smell of the blood still: all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand”. (W.Shakespear).
7.3.1. Trite (dead / hackneyed/ stale/ banal / stereotyped) - the original figurative meaning of which been forgotten due to the overuse. E.g.:I haven't seen you for ages. I can eat a horse.
7.3.1.1. • to intensify the quantitative/the qualitative aspect of the mentioned object; • to denote signals of the emotional background of the utterance; • to emphasize for an amusing effect; • makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary • to place emphasis on a particular action, feeling, or feature and is not meant to be taken literally.