1. The development and Evolution of Language
1.1. Key points
1.1.1. - 1940's 5 components of speech include: The sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, and the effect.
1.1.2. - Communication is very important among species whether it be acoustic, optical, tactile, or olfactory. ALL species communicate.
1.1.3. - Language (speech) is reserved for humans but other theories do exisit.
1.1.4. - Language is a product of evolution: Two arguements were presented in "The biological foundation of language"
1.1.4.1. **Continuity theory** - Language evolved gradually from simpler forms of communication found in animals - Evolutionary Connection: Argues that basic communication methods in animals, like sounds and gestures, are similar to early human language. - Slow development: Language skills grew step by step over time, building on what already existed - Example: Some primates and birds use advanced calls and signals that could be early forms of lnaguge.
1.1.4.2. **Discontinuity Theory** - Claims that human language is very different from any animal communication, suggesting a major leap in our ability to use language - Unique to humans: Argues that the complexity of human language cannot be explained by animal communication alone; something special happened in human evolution. - Cognitive Leap: Suggests that a significant change in the human brain allowed for the development of complex language
1.2. Design Features of Language: (an underlying set of prominent characteristics governing the functioning of speech) Hockett has 16 design features:
1.2.1. **Vocal-Auditory channel**-Language is primarily produced through vocal sounds and perceived through hearing
1.2.2. **Broadcast Transmission and Directionality** - Language signals can be transmitted in all directions and can be received by anyone within earshot
1.2.3. **Rapid Fading** - Sounds of speech don't last long; they disappear quickly
1.2.4. **Interchangeability**- Anyone can talk and listen, roles can change
1.2.5. **Complete Feedback**- We can hear our own speech and make changes as we talk
1.2.6. **Specialization**-Language is mainly for communication, not for other purposes
1.2.7. **Semanticity**- Words have specific meanings that everyone understands
1.2.8. **Arbitrariness**- There's no natural connection between words and their meanings; it's mostly random
1.2.9. **Discreteness**- Language is made up of a clear, separate sounds that can be combined in different ways
1.2.10. **Displacement**- We can talk about things that aren't happening right now or aren't here
1.2.11. **Productivity**- We can create endless sentences and ideas
1.2.12. **Cultural Transmission**- We learn language from others, not from biology
1.2.13. **Duality of Patterning**- Small sounds combine to make meaningful words
1.2.14. **Tradition**- Langauge is passed down through generations and can change over time
1.2.15. **Prevarication**- We can use language to lie or saythings that aren't true
1.2.16. **Reflexiveness**- We can use language to talk about language itself
1.3. Monogensis vs Polygenesis ***Monogenesis** Definition: Theory that suggests that all languages in the world descended from a single orginal language **Polygenesis** Definiton: Theory argues that languages arose independently in different parts of the world
2. Language Through Time
2.1. Key points:
2.1.1. -Language is recognized and investigated using the two following approaches
2.1.1.1. **Synchronic** Focuses on a specific time
2.1.1.2. **Diachronic** Focuses on historical development
2.1.2. Language Classification: - Over 6,000 documented languages, classified into families based on common ancestry
2.1.2.1. - Language Isolates: Languages with no other relatives
2.1.2.2. Macro Families: Broader groupings that connect different languages
2.1.3. Internal and External Changes:
2.1.3.1. Assimilation- happens when one sound in a word changes to become more like a nearby sound. Makes pronunciation quicker and easier
2.1.3.1.1. Why it happens: Change often occurs in casual conversation because people tend to speak more quickly and comfortably
2.1.3.2. Dissimilation- Opposite of assimilation, happens when two similar sounds in a word become less alike to make it easier to say
2.1.3.2.1. Why it happens: Change can occur to avoid repetition of sounds, which might be awkward to say.
2.1.3.3. Metathesis- switching the order of sounds in words
2.1.3.3.1. Why it happens: - People might find it easier to say the word that way - It could be influenced by how similar words are pronounced - Sometimes, kids or people learning a new language make these switches as they figure out how words sound
2.1.3.4. Lexical Borrowings: Languages adopt words from each other, making them richer
2.1.3.4.1. Why it happens: Cultural contact - when people from different cultures interact - through trade, travel, or colonization Need for new concepts - sometimes, a language doesn't have a word for a new idea, object, or technology. Borrowing helps fill gap. Presitige and Influence - one culture is seen as more advanced or fasionable, people might adob words from that culture to show status or sophistication Simplifying Communication - two language speakers communicate, using borrowed words can make it easier to understand each other.
2.1.4. Sound changes
2.1.4.1. Lexical Diffusion: Sound changes spread slowly throughout a language
2.1.4.2. Neogrammarians: Scholars who believe sound changes always follow certain rules
2.1.4.3. Social Factors: Language changes are influenced by soceity and culture
3. Language in variation and languages in contact
3.1. Key points:
3.1.1. Idiolects: - Unique way an individual speaks, influenced by personal traits like voice tempo and pitch - Changes over time due to various factors
3.1.2. Dialects: - Varieties of language shaped by geography, occupation, education, and social status - Measured by mutal intelligibility, which is how well speakers of different dialects understand each other.
3.1.3. Styles: - Different ways of using language depending on context (E.g: formal vs Casual) - Martin joos identified five styles in American English: Frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intamite
3.1.3.1. Frozen: - This sytle is very formal and doesn't change - It includes things like wedding vows, the Pledge of Allegiance, or literary texts - You don't typically change the words or structure
3.1.3.2. Formal: - Used in professional settings like speeches, presentations, or academic writing - It follows strict grammar rules and uses more complex vocabulary - You're careful about how you express yourself
3.1.3.3. Consultative: - This is a polite, semi-formal style used in conversations with people you don't know well. - It's often used in business meetings or discussions with clients - You might ask questions and give explainations, maintaining a respectful tone.
3.1.3.4. Casual: - This style is relaxed and friendly, used with friends and family. - It includes slang, informal expressions, and more conversational tone. - People feel comfortable expressing themselves without worrying too much about grammar
3.1.3.5. Intimate: - This is the most personal and private way of speaking - It's used between close friends or partners and includes inside jokes and personal terms - It often shows strong emotions and a deep connection between the speakers.
3.1.4. Pidgins: - Simplified languages developed for communication between speakers of different native languages, often linked to colonization - They have limited vocabulary and grammar, but enable cross-cultural communication
3.1.4.1. When a pidgin becomes a mother tongue for children, it can develop into a creole, a fully functioning language
3.1.4.2. Creoles often face social marginalization and can evolve toward a standard language (decreolization)
3.1.5. Contemporary Language Contact: - Languages are always evolving
3.1.5.1. For example: English influences Japanese, which has adopted many English words
3.1.5.2. Lingua franca serves as a common language for diverse speakers
3.1.5.3. Esperanto is an example of a constructed internation language, created to promote global communication
3.1.6. Language counts are difficult to determine due to many factors, including extinction risks and uncharted languages
4. Ethnography: Language and culture
4.1. Key points:
4.1.1. Hymes (1966) made an important observation about languages. He found that even though many languages share similar structures- like grammar and vocabulary- the way people use these languages in social situations can vary widely from one culture to another. How we speak, what we say, and when we say it can change based on cultural background.
4.1.2. Linguistic Competence: Refers to a person's knowledge of the grammar and rules of their native language
4.1.2.1. Includes understanding how to form sentences correctly, use proper punctuation, and know the meaning of words
4.1.2.2. For example: a native English speaker knows how to structure sentences, like saying "I went to the store" instead of "store i went"
4.1.3. Communicative Competence: Goes beyond just knowing grammar. It involves understanding how to use language appropriately in the different situations
4.1.3.1. Knowing what is sutiable to say in various social contexts. For instance, the way you talk to your friends may be very different from how you speak to your teacher or during a job interview
4.1.3.2. It includes being aware of social norms, such as when to be formal or informal, how to show respect and how to interpret social cues
4.1.4. Speech Community: - Defines how society and culture relate to language
4.1.4.1. Speech community includes people who share a language and specific speaking rules
4.1.4.2. Subcultures exist within larger cultures, often sharing unique language characteristics
4.1.5. Speech areas: Groups sharing similar speaking rules across languages create a speech area
4.1.6. Hymes key concepts (1972)
4.1.6.1. Language Field: Various communities where a person can communicate
4.1.6.2. Speech field: understanding the different rules of language use
4.1.6.3. Speech network: Connections among people who share language fields and speech fields
4.1.7. Units of Speech Behavior
4.1.7.1. Speech situations: Contexts in which speech occurs
4.1.7.2. Speech Acts: Individual communicative acts like greetings or questions
4.1.7.3. Speech Events: Collections of speech acts within a specific context
4.1.8. Components of Communication
4.1.8.1. Participants: Factors like age, gender, and relationship affect communication style
4.1.8.2. Setting: The physical and social context of communication
4.1.8.3. Purpose: The goal behind communication, such as creating a friendly atmosphere
4.1.8.4. Channels: Modes of communication, including spoken words and visual signs
4.1.9. Genres and Keys
4.1.9.1. Genre refers to different categories or types of speech or writing.
4.1.9.1.1. Different genres have their own rules and styles.
4.1.9.2. Key refers to the tone, mood, or spirit of how something is communicated. It's about feelings or attitude that come through in the way we speak or write
4.1.10. Rules of Interaction and Norms of Interpretation
4.1.10.1. Rules of Interaction: What is considered communication within a community
4.1.10.2. Norms of Interpretation: Guidelines for understanding communicative activities
4.1.11. Speaking Model
4.1.11.1. Setting and Scene
4.1.11.1.1. Physical and psychological contexts for communication
4.1.11.2. Participants
4.1.11.2.1. Who is involved in the communication
4.1.11.3. Ends
4.1.11.3.1. Goals of the communication
4.1.11.4. Act sequence
4.1.11.4.1. The order of events in the communicaton
4.1.11.5. Key
4.1.11.5.1. The tone or spirit of the communicaton
4.1.11.6. Instrumentalities
4.1.11.6.1. Forms and styles of speech
4.1.11.7. Norms
4.1.11.7.1. Social rules guiding behavior during communication
4.1.11.8. Genre
4.1.11.8.1. Type of speech or event
4.1.11.9. Frame
4.1.11.9.1. Context needed to understand a communicative event