1. Key Debate Three: How Liberal was Alexander?
1.1. Timeline
1.1.1. 1855-1866
1.1.1.1. Alexander's liberal era with all of the KD2 reforms
1.1.2. 1866
1.1.2.1. First assassination attempt on Alexander
1.1.2.1.1. Ended liberal era
1.1.3. 1871
1.1.3.1. Tolstoy became education minister
1.1.3.1.1. Introduced entrance exams to University making it more conservative
1.1.4. 1871
1.1.4.1. Trial of the 50 and 193
1.1.4.1.1. Shuvalov era over 1611 revolutionaries wer arrested between 1873 and 1877
1.1.5. 1881
1.1.5.1. Alexander was, however, going to consider extending the Zemstva to a national parliament
1.1.5.1.1. This was known as the Loris Melikov Constitution
1.2. 1866 was a clear turning point despite the final point
2. Key Debate Four: How Far did Alexander improve the lives of the Russian people
2.1. Alexander's reforms greatly improved the lives of the Peasants
2.1.1. For
2.1.1.1. Legal right to own property and marry whoever they wished
2.1.1.2. Peasants in the Steppe region received vast amounts of land thanks to emancipation
2.1.1.2.1. 13% of peasants after the emacipation had plenty of land due to lack of population concentration
2.1.2. Against
2.1.2.1. Land remained property of the nobles
2.1.2.1.1. Peasants had to pay 6% interest year-on-year in order to own the land
2.1.2.2. Peasants farmed around $20 less than prior to the emancipation
2.1.2.2.1. Peasant holdings in the Black Earth Region fell by 42%
2.1.2.3. Only 40% of Peasants had enough land to live off of
2.1.2.4. There were 1159 separate riots
2.2. Alexanders reforms marginally improved the lives of peasants
2.2.1. For
2.2.1.1. Executive powers given to arbitrary to ensure peasants received land from nobles
2.2.1.2. 47% didn't have enough land to sustain themselves
2.2.1.2.1. But in places like the Steppe peasans benefitted immensely
2.2.1.3. By 1870 55% of peasants had paid back their redepemption payments
2.2.1.3.1. By 1887 50% of Peasants were making profit
2.3. Alexander's reforms helped the nobility more than the peasants
2.3.1. For
2.3.1.1. Land remained property of the nobles and the nobility remained at the top of the civil service
2.3.1.1.1. In 1897 1,000 of the top 1,400 roles in the civil service were nobles
2.3.1.2. Nobles sold up in the countryside and reinvested in urban areas
2.3.1.2.1. In 1882 700 nobles owned factories or businesses in Moscow
2.3.1.3. Nobility maintained their superior psotion in society and voting franchise was restored so nobles dominated Zemstva
2.3.2. Against
2.3.2.1. Nobles moved out of the countryside
2.3.2.1.1. 80% of land owned by nobles in 1861, only 40% owned by nobles in 1905
2.3.2.1.2. Land holdings fell from 200 million acres to 144 million between 1877 and 1905
3. Key Debate Five: How effective was Opposition to Alexander?
3.1. Narodniks (Peoples will, land and liberty and 'Going to the People')
3.1.1. Effective
3.1.1.1. Managed to kill tsar after 6 attempts in 1881
3.1.1.2. Reforms did help the populists through removing censorship and allowing radical ideas to be spread
3.1.1.3. 1874 'Going to the people' campaing inspired by Lavlov
3.1.1.3.1. Gained the support of 4000 peasants
3.1.2. Ineffective
3.1.2.1. Narodniks failed catastrophically
3.1.2.1.1. Ultimatley their campaign led to the reactionary rule of Alexander III and the reversal of liberal reforms
3.1.2.2. Statute of State Security (1881) allowed Okhrana to repress the peoples will
3.1.2.2.1. 10,000 were arrested and by the end of 1881 the group were effectively killed off
3.1.2.3. 1,000 revolutionaries from going to the people were reported to the authorities by the peasants themselves
3.1.2.3.1. They were too conservative
3.2. Peasant Opposition
3.2.1. Effective
3.2.1.1. 1159 protests in 1861
3.2.1.1.1. May have worried alexander into emancipating suggesting a degree of success
3.2.2. Ineffective
3.2.2.1. Army dealt with protests
3.2.2.1.1. No leadership or organisation meant it did not pose a threat
3.3. National Minorities (incl. Polish Revolt)
3.3.1. Effective
3.3.1.1. 1861 Polish conscripts refused to join the army leading to widespread rioting
3.3.1.1.1. Russians were forced to impose martial law on the area and for forty days Russia lost control of warsaw
3.3.1.2. 1863 Polish revolutionaries formed a provisional government backed by 10,000 solders
3.3.2. Ineffective
3.3.2.1. Russian army was 90,000 men compared to 10,000 in Warsaw
3.3.2.2. Following Polish revolt 70,000 were exiled to Siberia and 400 were hanged
3.3.2.2.1. Demonstrated Alexanders ability to be repressive prior to shuvalov era
3.3.2.3. Catholic churches were closed down and Poland was divided into 10 provinces with military governors
3.3.2.4. University of Warsaw was entirely Russified
4. Key Debate One: What Motivated Alexanders Great Reforms?
4.1. Crimean War
4.1.1. Conditions of the 1856 Peace of Paris deprived Russia of naval fleet and bases on the black sea
4.1.1.1. Exposed the extent to which Russia was lagging behind european countries
4.1.2. Russia proved it could not compete with France or Britain on their own territory
4.1.2.1. Russian officials stated the military problem was attributed to the 'serf armry'
4.1.2.1.1. Serfs were forced to serve 25 years before they could be freed leading to an old army
4.1.2.1.2. The state had to maintain a costly peace time army and had no reserve forces
4.1.3. The defeat led to profound shock and indicated change was necessary
4.2. Liberal Beliefs
4.2.1. Did motivate him to reform
4.2.1.1. Alexander II went on tour in 1837 before he became tsar and saw all of the countries who had abolished serfdom
4.2.1.1.1. This was likely to influence him
4.2.1.2. Morally members of the royal family saw serfdom as incorrect
4.2.1.3. Turgenev's Sportsman Sketches (1852)
4.2.1.3.1. A Russian intellectual who critiqued sefdom and depicted how it was wrong to own a life
4.2.1.4. Alexander's inner circle including his brother and milyutin had very liberal beliefs
4.2.1.4.1. This likely influenced him
4.2.2. Did not motivate his reforms
4.2.2.1. Unlikely liberal beliefs motivated reform as the Romanov's had held these beliefs for 60 years prior to emancipation
4.2.2.2. His inner circle were already committed to reform
4.2.2.2.1. It was the Milyutin brothers who wrote the terms of the emancipation, for example
4.3. Preserve/Strengthen Tsarist autocracy
4.3.1. Did motivate him to reform
4.3.1.1. Alexander II needed a mobile workforce to promote industrialisation
4.3.1.1.1. Serfdom stymied the growth of the middle class
4.3.1.2. If a peasant developed the urge to earn more then they would stimulate industrail demand for consumer goods
4.3.1.3. There were 1467 revolts since 1800
4.3.1.3.1. A frightening factor for the tsar as peasants were essential to the social system
4.3.1.4. 1789 French revolution proved that peasants were capable of overthrowing a monarchy
4.3.2. Did not motivate him to reform
4.3.2.1. Alexander II may never have made the link between serfdom and industrialisation
4.3.2.1.1. The cotton industry developed in the 1850's without emancipation
4.3.2.2. Peasants had been repressed in all uprisings and didn't ever threaten the regime
4.3.2.2.1. Revolts rarely included more than a few villages and were not organised enough to pose a threat
5. Key Debate Two: Did Alexander's reforms modernise Russia?
5.1. Emancipation
5.1.1. Did Modernise
5.1.1.1. Between 1877 and 1905 noble land holdings reduced from 200 million acres to 144 million
5.1.1.1.1. Many nobles sold land and moved into cities investing in new industries
5.1.1.1.2. These land holders emerged into a new middle class and helped to fund further industrialisation
5.1.1.2. 20 million Peasants freed overnight!
5.1.1.2.1. A civil and bloodless emancipation
5.1.2. Limits to Modernisation
5.1.2.1. In 1861 there were 1159 riots one of which involving 10,000 peasants
5.1.2.2. Farmers received 20 acres less land after emancipation
5.1.2.2.1. By 1875 only 50% of peasants actually made profit
5.1.2.3. The Mir restricted mobility of workers and peasants as they controlled internal passports
5.1.2.4. Redemption payments payable at 6% interest
5.1.2.4.1. Many farmers did not make profit and could not afford these payments
5.2. Zemstva
5.2.1. Did Modernise
5.2.1.1. Improved quality of schools and living conditions in areas
5.2.1.2. First form of democracy introduced into tsarist structure
5.2.1.3. Responded more effectively to the 1861 famine than the national governments as they were localised
5.2.2. Limits to Modernisation
5.2.2.1. Had limited powers and did not lead to a national parliament
5.2.2.2. Electoral system favoured the nobility in the Zemstvas
5.2.2.3. By 1914 just 37 out of 90 provinces had a zemstva with the roll out in only Russian speaking areas
5.3. Legal Reforms
5.3.1. Modernised Russia
5.3.1.1. Standardised legal system inline with other european countries
5.3.1.1.1. New legal system principle of putting equality before the law
5.3.1.2. Vera Zasulich Case
5.3.1.2.1. She got away with the murder of the Governor of St Petersburg after he had mistreated prisoners, she had even admitted to it but claimed defense
5.3.2. Limits to Modernisation
5.3.2.1. Poland and other regions were excluded from legal reforms
5.3.2.2. Tsar could appoint and promote judges in the Judiciary system so had an element of bias
5.4. Military Reforms
5.4.1. Milyutins reformed the military between 1863 and 1875
5.4.2. Modernised Russia
5.4.2.1. Universal conscription to all classes, making army more representative
5.4.2.2. Provided better training
5.4.2.2.1. 3 million more people had access to an advanced education including peasants
5.4.2.3. Railways grew under Milyutin allowing the movement of troops and equipment across Russia
5.4.2.4. Reduction in conscrtiption age
5.4.2.4.1. Lowed average age of the army and reduced size of the army decreasing expenditure
5.4.3. Limits to modernisation
5.4.3.1. The next war Russia fights (Russo turkish war in 1877) it loses
5.4.3.1.1. It also loses against Japan in 1905 and again against Germany in 1917
5.5. Education Reforms
5.5.1. Reforms largely pushed through by liberal leaning minister of education (Golovnin)
5.5.2. Modernised Russia
5.5.2.1. More schools opened
5.5.2.1.1. 1856 had 8,000 primary schools, by 1880 there were 23,000 and by 1900 there were 81,000
5.5.2.2. From 1864 women could attend secondary schools
5.5.2.3. University Statute of 1863
5.5.2.3.1. Granted geater independance to univerisities and reduced government control
5.5.3. Limits to modernisation
5.5.3.1. Univeristy statute led to the reintroduction of censorship and state supervision
5.5.3.1.1. Teachers became more radical and taught students radical ideas
5.6. Censorship
5.6.1. Modernised Russia
5.6.1.1. Period of Glastnost
5.6.1.1.1. Allowed Das Kapital to be published
5.6.1.1.2. Press became more politicised
5.6.2. Limits to Modernisation
5.6.2.1. Led to retightening of censorship after assassination attempt in 1866