Linguistic Anthropology (Ch. 6 - 10)

1. 1940s Model of Communication

1.1. Sender

1.1.1. Source

1.2. Message

1.3. Channel

1.3.1. Ex. Media

1.4. Reciever

1.4.1. Destination

1.5. Effect

2. Channels of Communication

2.1. acoustic channel

2.1.1. Speech, whistling, and talking

2.1.2. Ex. Birds

2.1.2.1. songs

2.1.2.1.1. innate or learned

2.1.2.1.2. used to attract mates

2.1.2.2. birdcalls

2.1.2.2.1. signal alarm, feeding, distresss, take off, or landing

2.2. optical channel

2.2.1. writing, gestures, and picture

2.3. tactile channel

2.3.1. braille or use of sense of touch

2.4. olfactory channel

2.4.1. smells

2.4.2. Ex. Insects

2.4.2.1. smells are important to insects as they use pheromones to coordinate movements.

3. Human Evolution

3.1. Primates that human belong to emerged 60 - 70 million years ago

3.1.1. Early primates were arboreal

3.1.2. Some adapted to live on ground due to environmental changes

3.2. Hominoids

3.2.1. A subdivision of primates that includes all extinct and contemporary humans and apes

3.2.2. Excludes monkeys or prosimians

3.2.3. Consists of 3 Families

3.2.3.1. Lesser apes

3.2.3.1.1. siamangs and gibbons

3.2.3.2. Great apes

3.2.3.2.1. gorillas, orangutans, chimpanzees

3.2.3.3. Hominids

3.2.3.3.1. humans

3.2.3.3.2. Earliest example come from East Africa

3.2.3.3.3. Homo Habilis

3.2.3.3.4. Homo erectus

3.2.3.3.5. Homo sapiens

4. "Design Features" of language

4.1. Proposed in 1960's by Charles F. Hockett

4.2. "A set of unique properties that supposedly characterize all human language and separate it from communication forms of other animals."

4.3. First proposed 7 design features, but soon increased number to 16.

4.3.1. Vocal-Auditory Channel

4.3.1.1. Ears and mouth

4.3.2. Broadcast transimission & Directional reception

4.3.2.1. Binaural ears (both ears)

4.3.2.1.1. no need to know where noise is coming from

4.3.3. Rapid fading

4.3.3.1. Language is temporary & effective

4.3.4. Interchangeability

4.3.4.1. Listener & hearer can use and understand the same language

4.3.5. Complete feedback

4.3.5.1. Speakers can hear & monitor their own words

4.3.6. Specialization

4.3.6.1. Human speech is only used to communicate

4.3.7. Semanticity

4.3.7.1. Speech has meaning

4.3.8. Arbitrariness

4.3.8.1. No intrinsic link between form of meaningful unit (word) & concept

4.3.9. Discreteness

4.3.9.1. Distinct sounds create change in meaning

4.3.10. Displacement

4.3.10.1. Humans can talk about something removed from time and/or space

4.3.11. Productivity/opennes

4.3.11.1. Original comments

4.3.12. Duality of patterning

4.3.12.1. Meaningless sounds

4.3.12.2. Meaningful parts of language

4.3.13. Cultural transmission

4.3.13.1. Language is not passed on genetically but culturally

4.3.14. Prevarication

4.3.14.1. What someone can say can be completely false

4.3.15. Reflexiveness

4.3.15.1. Humans can use language to talk about language

4.3.16. Learnability

4.3.16.1. Any human can potentially learn any human language

5. Language as an Evolutionary Product

5.1. Eric H. Lenneburg (1967) presents two arguments

5.1.1. Continuity Theory

5.1.1.1. Speech developed from primitive forms of communication from lower animals

5.1.1.2. Straight line of evolution

5.1.1.3. Can compare lower animal sounds to human forms of communication

5.1.2. Discontinuity Theory

5.1.2.1. Human language is a unique form of communication

5.1.2.2. No evolutionary antecedents in animal kingdom

5.1.2.3. Cannot compare human language to animals sounds

5.1.2.4. All humans have the potential of acquiring language

5.2. Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould

5.2.1. Believes Language arose as a by-product

5.3. Language Death

5.3.1. Definition: The loss of a language when its last native speakers die out.

5.3.2. Just as much part the evolutionary process of language as expansion and growth

5.3.3. Language change

5.3.3.1. Different than Language death

5.3.3.2. Ex. Old English is technically dead but through Middle English and Shakespeare's Early Modern English, it is alive in places like Britain.

5.3.4. Common Reasons for Language Death

5.3.4.1. Small societies perished due to epidemics, warefare, or natural disasters

5.3.4.2. Economical and cultural influence of large nation states

5.3.4.3. Next generation of bilingual small society becomes monolingual in the language of the larger society

5.3.4.3.1. Ex. United States school systems punished Native American pupils for speaking native languages

5.4. Other theories exist about the orgins of languages

5.4.1. Two different extremes

5.4.1.1. Language as something that emerges?

5.4.1.2. Language as something innate?

5.4.2. Polygenesis

5.4.2.1. Did language originate in several places separately?

5.4.2.2. Has been deemed problematic

5.4.3. Monogenesis

5.4.3.1. Radical

5.4.3.1.1. Straight line of evolution

5.4.3.2. Fuzzy (Hockett)

5.4.3.2.1. Single origin in separate groups creating differences

5.4.3.2.2. Several varieties of pre-language survived

5.4.4. Derek Bickerton (1990)

5.4.4.1. Researched "protolanguage" or pre-language

5.4.4.2. Results of one crucial mutation

5.4.4.3. Connects to capacity of all normal children ability to acquire language

5.4.4.4. Innate ability throughout human regardless of ethnicity

6. Language acquisition

6.1. Baby/Infants

6.1.1. Not regimented to strict language curriculum

6.1.2. Learn phonological system of language

6.1.2.1. bill, pill, thin, sin

6.1.3. Later learn more delicate differences

6.1.3.1. Dose or Doze, Pen or Pin, Mill or Meal

6.1.4. Stages of Speech

6.1.4.1. Reflexive

6.1.4.1.1. 8-10 weeks

6.1.4.1.2. crying, burping, cooing, coughing

6.1.4.2. Vocal

6.1.4.2.1. 6 months

6.1.4.2.2. Wide range of sounds resembling consonants and vowels

6.1.4.3. Babbling

6.1.4.3.1. 6-12 months

6.1.4.3.2. Less varied sounds tend to proximate sounds of the language to be acquired.

6.1.4.4. Intonational Contours

6.1.4.4.1. Definition: Varying pitches superimposed on an utterance to indicate questions or statements.

6.1.4.4.2. Age 1

6.1.4.4.3. Age 1-2

6.2. Behavioral Psychology Theory

6.2.1. Made popular by B.F. Skinner (1957) in his book *Verbal Behavior *

6.2.2. People are a blank slate

6.2.3. Stimulus-response-reward formula

6.2.4. Human environment to which the child responds

6.2.4.1. Ex. Child reponse to the word mama is acceptable and learner is awarded with praise

6.3. Innatist Theory

6.3.1. Popularized by Noam Chomsky (1959), opposed Skinner's ideas

6.3.2. Argues language is part of an innate behavior

6.3.2.1. Ex. Ducks knowing to walk behind each other

6.3.3. We have an innate or internal drive to learn communication, but we do not imitate exactly as learned

6.3.3.1. Chomsky argued exact imitation would not account for ungrammatical forms

6.3.4. Language acquisition devise (LAD)

6.3.4.1. Definition: An inborn capacity of children to acquire their mother tongue without any formal attempt to teach it to them.

6.3.5. "Poverty of stimulus" (PS)

6.3.5.1. Loose ideas about language

6.3.5.2. Fragments of language

6.3.5.3. incorrect pronunciation

6.3.6. Critical-age theory

6.3.6.1. Children maturing are more capable of learning language

6.3.7. Lateralization

6.3.7.1. Localization of certain functions on one side of the brain rather than the other

6.4. Sociocultural Theory

6.4.1. Popularized by Elinor Ochs and Bambi B. Schieffelin when studying Western Samoa and Papua New Guinea (1982)

6.4.2. Two Claims

6.4.2.1. Process of acquiring language is deeply affected by the process of becoming a competent member of society

6.4.2.2. Becoming a membe of society is through (large extent) acquiring knowledge of its function

6.4.3. Findings

6.4.3.1. Language acquisition must relate to behavior patterns expected of adult members

6.4.3.2. The do not diminish biological predisposition to language or create rigid formula or age

6.4.3.3. Importance of studying how children are socialized through the use of language

6.5. Language and the Brain

6.5.1. Neurolinguistics

6.5.1.1. Definition: A branch of linguistics that studies the role of the brain in speech processing.

6.5.2. Human Bain is extremely complex

6.5.2.1. Cerebrum

6.5.2.1.1. Largest part of brain

6.5.2.1.2. Consists of two hemisphere, each with different function

6.5.2.2. Cerebral cortex

6.5.2.2.1. important for language processing

6.5.2.3. Left thalamus

6.5.2.3.1. Largest subdivision of posterior forebrain

6.5.2.4. Broca's aphasia/area

6.5.2.4.1. associated with motor control of speech

6.5.2.5. Wernicke's aphasia/area

6.5.2.5.1. associated with the comprehension of language

6.6. Bilingual and Multilingual

6.6.1. First language acquisition is different from the second

6.6.2. Three development stages

6.6.2.1. Child builds set of words from both languages

6.6.2.2. Sentence begin to form from both languages

6.6.2.3. Each language is used distinctly & the sociolinguistic power of each language is used

6.6.3. Social aspects of multilingualism

6.6.3.1. Language can serve as badge of ethnic identity & uniqueness

6.6.3.2. Language is medium of communication for members

6.6.3.3. Dell Hymes (1968)

6.6.3.3.1. Researched communicative units

6.6.3.3.2. Mutual intelligibility, codes and rules of codes use

6.6.3.4. Hans Wolff (1967)

6.6.3.4.1. researched language the relationship between in southern Nigeria

6.6.3.4.2. Language, ethnic, identity, and social change

6.6.3.5. Bilingualism or trilingualism is most common

6.6.3.5.1. Simultaneous

6.6.3.5.2. Sequential

6.6.3.5.3. Immigrants maintain high level of bilingualism

6.7. Code-switching

6.7.1. Prolific linguist Mikhail Bakhtin (1981)

6.7.1.1. Researched an illiterate peasant who:

6.7.1.1.1. Prays in Slavonic

6.7.1.1.2. Speaks to family in local dialect

6.7.1.1.3. Sings hymns in Standard Russian

6.7.1.1.4. Speaks to local official in what he thinks is high-class speech

6.7.2. Elinar Haugen (1956) & Carol Myers Scotton (1993)

6.7.2.1. Definition: The mixing of words, phrases, and sentences of two (or more) languages or varieties in a single larger speech event.

6.7.2.2. Haugen coined in term code-switching later expanded on by Myers

6.7.3. Code-mixing

6.7.3.1. Incorporation of linguistic units from one language into another

6.7.3.2. Ex. "Empiezo en Espanol, but finish in English."

6.7.4. Diglossia

6.7.4.1. The use of two distinct varieties of languages for two different sets of functions.

6.7.5. Why?

6.7.5.1. To show solidarity

6.7.5.2. To reflect social status

6.7.5.3. Topic

6.7.5.4. Affection

6.7.5.5. To persuade audience

7. Language Through Time

7.1. Language in investigated using two approaches

7.1.1. Synchronic

7.1.1.1. Dealing with linguistic phenomena as they exist at a specific point in time

7.1.1.2. Without regard for historical antecedents

7.1.2. Diachronic

7.1.2.1. Deals with linguistic phenomena as they occur over time

7.1.2.2. Considers their historical development

7.2. Language Classification

7.2.1. Krauss (1992)

7.2.1.1. There are at least 6,000 documented languages

7.2.1.2. Historical Records show a loss of many languages

7.2.1.2.1. Currently may range from 2-6 thousand

7.2.2. Genetic relationships

7.2.2.1. Language Families

7.2.2.1.1. languages that are related by virtue of having descended from a singly ancestral language.

7.2.2.1.2. Ex. Indo-European Branches of Language/Language Families

7.2.2.2. Speakers of Spanish can hear connection to other languages like Portugues & Italian

7.2.2.2.1. Due to Latin origins

7.2.3. Language isolates

7.2.3.1. Language unrelated to any other

7.2.3.2. Languages may have several isolates

7.2.3.2.1. Ex. Native American Languages

7.2.3.3. Edward Sapir (1929)

7.2.3.3.1. Tried simplify these categories

7.2.3.3.2. Lumping languages into large super families or phyla (taxonomic categorization)

7.3. Joseph H. Greenburg (1960)

7.3.1. Researched South American Language families

7.3.2. Categorized them into 3 large families

7.3.3. In 1987 he categorized all native languages of the "New World" in 3 categories

7.3.3.1. Amerind

7.3.3.1.1. Hopi & Choctaw

7.3.3.2. Eskimo-Aleut

7.3.3.3. Na-Dene

7.3.3.3.1. Tlingit

7.4. Kaiser & Shevoroshkin (1964)

7.4.1. Soviet Linguists

7.4.2. Categorized all "Old World" languages into 6 language families

7.4.2.1. Indo-European

7.4.2.2. Afro-Asiatic

7.4.2.2.1. Middle East, North African

7.4.2.3. Altaic

7.4.2.3.1. Turkish, Mongolian, Siberia

7.4.2.4. Dravidian

7.4.2.4.1. Indian Languages

7.4.2.5. Uralic

7.4.2.5.1. Finnish, Northern European

7.4.2.6. Kartvelian

7.4.2.6.1. South Caucasian

7.5. Internal & External changes

7.5.1. Assimilation

7.5.1.1. The influence of one speech sound on the articulation of another so that both become similar or identical

7.5.2. Dissimilation

7.5.2.1. The influence of one speech sound on the articulation of another so that they become less alike

7.5.3. Metathesis

7.5.3.1. Alteration in the normal sequence of linguistic elements

7.5.4. Loan Words

7.5.4.1. Language is not isolated from each other and sounds often mix together

7.5.4.2. Lexical borrowing

7.5.4.2.1. Ex. English borrows easily from other languages & adopts them

7.5.4.3. Definition: A word borrowed from another language and at least partly naturalized by the borrowing language

7.5.4.4. Linguistic Purism

7.5.4.4.1. Iceland borrows no words from any language

7.6. William Labov (1960's)

7.6.1. Developed concept of lexical diffusion

7.6.1.1. Spreading of sounds changes throughout the words of language

7.6.2. Differed from popular view of neogrammarian (claims sound laws admitted no exception)

7.7. Why sound changes occur?

7.7.1. Regular forms influence less regular forms

7.7.1.1. Ex. Latin loan words

7.7.1.1.1. Some are reduced so they require less effort

7.7.2. Sociocultural Factors

7.7.2.1. Sounds, grammar, and words used by elite is imitated by lower class

7.7.3. Hypercorrection

7.7.3.1. Definition: An alteration of a speech habit based on a false analogy or comparison.

7.7.3.2. Whom used instead of Who

7.8. Reconstructing Protolanguages

7.8.1. Two main assumptions

7.8.1.1. Recurring similarities between words in different languages indicate relation.

7.8.1.2. Sound changes occur in similar circumstances.

7.8.2. Idea that proto-language was simple or primitive is false

7.9. Reconstructing Ancestral Homeland

7.9.1. T. Siebert

7.9.1.1. Believed you could find the origins of a particular language through investigating the particular culture

7.9.1.2. Traced similar words in daughter languages related to Proto-Algonquian (PA) language.

7.9.1.2.1. Method was to use different animals to trace connection.

7.9.1.2.2. Natural landscape and maps of wildlife were used to find out the location.

7.9.2. Location of Original Language

7.9.2.1. 1. Original territory occupied by ancestral group would be limited.

7.9.2.2. 2. Vocabulary of ancestral group would be specific to main features of culture: mammals, fish, birds, trees etc.

7.9.2.3. 3. Daughter languages of the original language must share linguistic similarities that can be traced through justifiable assumptions of cognates.

7.10. Reconstructung a Protoculture

7.10.1. Protowords

7.10.1.1. Definition: An assumed or reconstructed ancestral word of cognate words found in the languages of a language family.

7.10.2. Similar to the methods used to decipher the origins of PA we can also do this with Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language.

7.11. Morris Swadesh (1950)

7.11.1. Researched language families of the American Northwest

7.11.2. Swadesh Method

7.11.2.1. Lexicostatistics

7.11.2.1.1. A method of establishing linguistic relationship on the basis of quantitative study of lexical items

7.11.2.2. Glottochronology

7.11.2.2.1. A method, considered to be controversial, to quantify the extent to which languages have diverged from a common source

7.11.2.2.2. Dwight Bolinger

8. Ethnography of Communication

8.1. Hymes (1966)

8.1.1. Noticed Linguists studying structure of language found that all languages are fundamentally alike.

8.1.2. Social uses of language are different.

8.2. Social context

8.2.1. Varies culture to culture

8.2.2. People need to learn social rules that govern language

8.2.2.1. Linguistic Competence

8.2.2.1.1. The knowledge of the grammatical rules of one’s mother tongue.

8.2.2.2. Communicative Competence

8.2.2.2.1. The knowledge that enables a person to communicate in any sociocultural authentic context.

8.3. Speech Community

8.3.1. Language & speech reflect uniqueness

8.3.2. Definition: All those who share a language variety as well as specific rules for speaking and interpreting speech.

8.3.3. People who speak the same language are not always part of a speech community

8.3.3.1. Ex. South Asian English in India compared to US English

8.3.4. Sometime people who speak different languages are part of the same speech community

8.3.4.1. Ex. Paraguay speak two languages. (Spanish and Guarani)

8.3.5. Speech Area

8.3.5.1. An area in which speakers of different languages share speaking rules.

8.3.6. Hymes (1972)

8.3.6.1. Language field

8.3.6.1.1. Different communities an individual is able to adequately communicate; including languages and language varieties

8.3.6.2. Speech field

8.3.6.2.1. Understanding varying rules of language rather then rules of language.

8.3.6.3. Speech network

8.3.6.3.1. People who share language field and speech field.

8.4. Units of Speech Behavior

8.4.1. Hymes developed additional concept & theories

8.4.2. Speech situations

8.4.2.1. Context within which speaking occurs

8.4.2.2. Circumstances: Birthday, baby shower, seminar meeting

8.4.2.3. Anything definable in terms of participants and goals distinguishable from other speech situations.

8.4.3. Speech event

8.4.3.1. Basic unit of speech interaction

8.4.3.2. A collection of speech acts

8.4.3.3. Activities governed by rules about speaking

8.4.3.3.1. Ex. Confession to a priest

8.4.4. Speech act

8.4.4.1. Greeting, apology, question, compliment, self-intro

8.4.4.2. Vary in size and can be collective speech acts

8.4.4.2.1. Congregating saying Amen, pledge of allegiance

8.4.4.3. Special circumstances can change a speech act to a speech event

8.5. Components of communication

8.5.1. Participants

8.5.1.1. Traditionally speech behavior involves speakers and hearer, but there is more involved.

8.5.1.2. Important characteristics: Age, gender, ethnic affiliation, relationship (kinship), social status, and how well are they acquainted

8.5.1.2.1. Factors determine whether they will be casual or not

8.5.2. Setting

8.5.2.1. Communicative acts or event happens a particular time, place, and circumstance.

8.5.2.2. Classes meet in schools, anywhere else may be weird or odd

8.5.2.3. Psychological setting

8.5.2.3.1. Creates mood, invites or inhibit certain communicative acts or events

8.5.3. Purpose

8.5.3.1. One's goal, in communication is important

8.5.3.2. Phatic communion

8.5.3.2.1. Speech behavior with the goal of bringing out a emotional effect.

8.5.4. Channels

8.5.4.1. Ashanti 5 distinct tones or sub codes

8.5.4.1.1. Ceremonial language/code

8.5.4.1.2. Ghost language/code

8.5.4.1.3. Drum language/code

8.5.4.1.4. Gong language/code

8.5.4.1.5. Whistling language/code

8.5.4.2. Visual channel

8.5.4.2.1. Military salute, gang signs, emblems

8.5.5. Genres, key

8.5.5.1. A class of literary (or folk literary) composition characterized by a particular style form, or content.

8.5.5.1.1. Ex. Fairy or wonder tales

8.5.5.2. Key-Tone, manner, or spirit in which an act is done.

8.5.6. Rules of Interaction

8.5.6.1. The knowledge of members of a speech community as to what is and what is not appropriate in communication.

8.5.7. Norms of Interpretation

8.5.7.1. The acceptable boundaries within which communicative activity is to be understood or explained.

8.5.8. Frame (framing)

8.5.8.1. A context, or frame of reference, sufficiently well defined to make it possible for a communicative event to be fully understood and adequately interpreted

8.6. The Speaking Model

8.6.1. Setting & Scene

8.6.1.1. Time and place

8.6.1.2. The "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a scene

8.6.2. Participants

8.6.2.1. Speaker and audience

8.6.3. Ends

8.6.3.1. Purpose, goals, and outcomes

8.6.4. Act Sequence

8.6.4.1. Form and order of the event

8.6.5. Key

8.6.5.1. Cues that establish "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act

8.6.6. Instrumentalities

8.6.6.1. Forms and styles of speech

8.6.7. Norms

8.6.7.1. Social rules governing the event & the participant's action & reaction

8.6.8. Genre

8.6.8.1. The kind of speech or event (story)

9. Languages in Variation

9.1. The sound of someone's voice connects to specific speech patterns.

9.1.1. Regional varieties of language

9.1.2. Vocabulary

9.1.3. Grammar

9.1.4. Pronunciation

9.2. Idiolect

9.2.1. The speech variety of a single individual (that is, one’s personal dialect)

9.2.2. Over a lifetimes changes occur to someone's voice for various reasons

9.2.2.1. Ex. Age (puberty)

9.3. Dialect

9.3.1. People may develop a particular way of saying something

9.3.1.1. Living in same area

9.3.1.2. Similar occupation

9.3.1.3. Similar education

9.3.1.4. Similar economic status

9.3.2. All languages spoken by more than one small homogenous community people have dialects.

9.3.3. Example: English has a variety of distince words that are spoken in certain regions

9.3.3.1. Australians = "bludger" means "loafer"

9.4. Styles

9.4.1. Lexical & phonological distinctions

9.4.1.1. American "Literally"

9.4.1.2. Standard British English "Literally"

9.4.2. Standard form

9.4.2.1. The prestige variety of a language used by a speech community under usually formal circumstances

9.4.2.2. Variety of language used by the educated

9.4.2.3. Used in school and format situations, heard on radio, sermons and lectures

10. Language in Contact

10.1. Languages have been in contact

10.1.1. Through trade, travel, migration, war, intermarriage

10.1.2. Causes unintelligible languages to be in proximity

10.2. Languages die, mix, and are born

10.3. Pidgins

10.3.1. Definition: A simplified language used to cross language barriers when there is a communicative need between people who speak mutually unintelligible languages.

10.3.2. Mostly associated with European colonization

10.3.3. Usually not the primary language but rather derived from one of the languages in contact

10.3.4. Simplicity of pidgin language is the advantage

10.3.4.1. Allows for cross-cultural communication

10.3.5. Languages adapt & go through pidginization

10.3.5.1. Definition: process of grammatical and lexical reeducation of a language to a pidgin

10.4. Creolization & Creole

10.4.1. Definition: The process of expansion of a pidgin to fully serve a speech community.

10.4.2. Creole language are usually marginalized

10.4.2.1. Standard adopted by wealthier class while Creole is used by poor class

10.4.3. Decreolization

10.4.3.1. Definition: The change that a creole undergoes as it moves in the direction of the standard language

10.4.3.2. Basilect

10.4.3.2.1. language variety most remote from the prestige form of a language

10.4.3.3. Acrolect

10.4.3.3.1. language variety closest to the prestige form of a language

10.4.4. Derek Bickerton (1981)

10.4.4.1. Bioprogram Hypothesis

10.4.4.1.1. Humans have biological innate capacity for language

10.4.4.1.2. Linked pidgins & creoles with children language acquisitions & origins

10.4.4.1.3. Cognitive Distinctions

10.4.4.1.4. Recent research has looked at the sociocultural context of pidgins and creoles

10.5. Lingua Franca

10.5.1. Used by people around the world

10.5.2. A language used as a common means of communication between people speaking different native languages

10.6. Artificial or Auxilary Language

10.6.1. An alternative international language

10.6.2. Esperanto (official/semiofficial languge) (Crystal 2010)

10.6.2.1. Created 100 year ago

10.6.2.2. 400 million speakers

10.6.2.3. Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof

10.7. Gordon (2005)

10.7.1. According to him 6,900 languages are spoken today

10.7.1.1. Includes Pidgins & Creoles, Historical & Pre-historical languages

10.7.2. Lack of clear number comes from:

10.7.2.1. Languages are still not included in remote areas

10.7.2.2. Some languages are on verge of extinction

10.7.2.3. challenge of dialectal categorization