1. 8.9 to 8.11 - Adolescence
1.1. 8.9 - Physical development
1.1.1. Adolescence is the period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s during which physical development reaches completion
1.1.2. Puberty is a period of about 4 years during which the sexual organs and systems fully mature and during which secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, breasts, menstruation, deepening voices, and growth spurt occurs
1.2. 8.10 - Cognitive development
1.2.1. Adolescents engage in two kinds of egocentric thinking:
1.2.1.1. The imaginary audience, which is the believe that other people are just as concerned about their thoughts and actions as they are themselves
1.2.1.2. The personal fable, which is the believe that adolescents have which makes them think they are unique and protected from harm
1.2.2. Kohlberg proposed 3 levels of moral development:
1.2.2.1. Preconventional morality: morality of an action are based on its consequences
1.2.2.2. Conventional morality: morality of an action is determined by what is accepted by society and what is not
1.2.2.3. Postconventional morality: morality is determined by the experiences and judgement of the person
1.2.2.4. Gilligan suggested that Kohlberg's ideas applied more to males
1.3. 8.11 - Psychosocial development
1.3.1. In Erikson's identity vs role confusion crisis, the job of the adolescent is to achieve a consistent sense of self from among all the roles, values and futures open to him or her
2. 8.12 to 8.17 Adulthood and aging
2.1. 8.12 - Physical development
2.1.1. The 20s are the peak of physical health; in the 30s the signs of aging become more visible; and in the 40s visual problems may occur, weight may increase, strength may decrease and height begins to decrease
2.1.2. Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric, ending at about age 50 with the menopause, when a woman's reproductive capabilities are at an end. Men go through andropause, a less dramatic change in testosterone and other male hormones, beginning in the 40s
2.1.3. Many health problems such as high blood pressure, skin cancers, and arthritis begin in middle age, with the most common causes of death in middle age being heart disease, cancer and stroke
2.2. 8.13 - Cognitive development
2.2.1. Reaction times slow down, but intelligence and memory remain relatively stable
2.3. 8.14 - Psychosocial development
2.3.1. Erikson's crisis of young adulthood is intimacy vs isolation, in which the young adult must establish an intimate relationship, usually with a mate
2.3.2. The crisis of middle adulthood is generativity vs stagnation, in which the task of the middle-aged adult is to help the next generation through its crises, either by parenting, mentoring or a career that leaves some legacy to the next generation
2.3.3. Baumrind proposed three parenting styles:
2.3.3.1. Authoritarian: rigid and uncompromising
2.3.3.2. Authoritative: consistent and strict but warm and flexible
2.3.3.3. Permissive: either indifferent and unconcerned with the daily activities of the child or indulgent and unwilling to set limits on the child
2.3.4. Erikson's final crisis is integrity versus despair, in which an older adult must come to terms with mortality
2.4. 8.15 - Theories of physical and psychological aging
2.4.1. Activity theory: theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby
2.4.2. Cellular-clock theory: based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce; once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate
2.4.3. Wear-and-tear theory: as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body's tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage
2.4.4. Free-radical theory: states that oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go
2.5. 8.16 - Stages of death and dying
2.5.1. According to Kübler-Ross's theory, the 5 stages of death and dying are:
2.5.1.1. Denial
2.5.1.2. Anger
2.5.1.3. Bargaining
2.5.1.4. Depression
2.5.1.5. Acceptance
2.6. 8.17 - Death and dying in other cultures
2.6.1. In Northern Cheyenne culture, death is seen as part of the process of the life cycle and takes place in three stage
2.6.2. In Navajo culture, the dead are believed to move to the underworld, and contact with the body is strictly limited for fear of luring evil spirits to the world of the living
2.6.3. In wealthy Hindu families, a dying person is surrounded by family and friends and then honored with a funeral process of nearly 2 weeks
3. 8.1 to 8. 3 - Studying human development
3.1. 8.1 - Research designs
3.1.1. Longitudinal design
3.1.1.1. Here, one group of people is studied over a long period of time
3.1.2. Cross-sectional design
3.1.2.1. Here, several different age groups are studied at one point in time
3.1.2.1.1. Cohort effect: impact of development when a group of people share a common time period/life experience
3.1.3. Cross-sequential design
3.1.3.1. This is a mixture of the other two, where several different age groups are studied over a long period of time
3.2. 8.2 - Nature and nurture
3.2.1. Most developmental psychologists agree that development is a product of an interaction between nature and nurture
3.2.2. Behavioral genetics is a field investigation the relative contributions to development of heredity and environment
3.3. 8.3 - The basic building blocks of development
3.3.1. Dominant genes determine the expression of a trait, whereas recessive gene traits are only expressed when paired with another recessive gene influencing the same trait. Almost all traits are the result of combinations of genes working together in a process called polygenic inheritance.
3.3.2. Chromosome disorders: down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome
3.3.3. Genetic disorders: PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease
4. 8.4 to 8.5 - Prenatal development
4.1. 8.4 - Fertilization
4.1.1. The fertilized egg is called a zygote and divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby
4.1.2. MZ twins are formed when a zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which will develop into a baby identical to the other
4.1.3. DZ twins are formed when the mother's body releases multiple eggs and at least two are fertilized or when another ovulation occurs even though the mother has already become pregnant
4.2. 8.5 - Three stages of development
4.2.1. Germinal period: first 2 weeks of pregnancy in which the dividing mass of cells moves in the uterus and the placenta begins to form
4.2.2. Embryonic period: begins at 2 weeks and ends at 8 weeks. The vital organs and structures of the baby form during this period, making it a critical one when teratogens may adversely affect the development of organs and structures
4.2.3. Fetal period: from the beginning of the 9th week until birth of the baby. During the fetal period, tremendous growth occurs, length and weight increase, and organs continue to become fully functional
5. 8.6 to 8.8 - Infancy and childhood development
5.1. 8.6 - Physical development
5.1.1. 4 critical areas of adjustment for the newborn are respiration, digestion, circulation, and temperature regulation
5.1.2. Infants are born with reflexes that help the infant survive until more complex learning is possible. These reflexes include sucking, rooting, startle, grasping and stepping
5.1.3. The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth. Vision is blurry and lacking color perception until about 6 months of age. Gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood
5.2. 8.7 - Cognitive development
5.2.1. Piaget developed four stages of cognitive development:
5.2.1.1. 1. Sensorimotor stage: Birth to age 2, where infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the world around them
5.2.1.2. 2. Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years, is a time of developing language and concepts. Pretending and make believe play becomes possible, but they are not yet capable of logical thought
5.2.1.3. 3. Concrete operations: 7 to 12 years, children become capable of logical thought, but cannot deal with abstract concepts effectively
5.2.1.4. 4. Formal operations: 12 to adulthood, abstract thinking becomes possible, this changed is not reached by everyone according to Piaget
5.2.2. Vygotsky believed that children learn best when being helped by a more highly skilled peer or adult in a process called scaffolding
5.2.2.1. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the difference between the mental age of tasks the child performs without help and those the child can perform with help
5.3. 8.8 - Psychosocial development
5.3.1. The three basic infant temperaments are:
5.3.1.1. Easy: regular, adaptable and happy
5.3.1.2. Difficult: irregular, nonadaptable and irritable
5.3.1.3. Slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change
5.3.2. The four types of attachment:
5.3.2.1. Secure
5.3.2.2. Avoidant (unattached)
5.3.2.3. Ambivalent (insecurely attached)
5.3.2.4. Disorganized-disoriented (insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected)
5.3.3. Harlow's classic research with infant monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort in the attachment process, contradicting the earlier view that attachment was merely a function of associating the mother with the delivery of food
5.3.4. Erikson's 8 stages of development:
5.3.4.1. In trust vs mistrust, the infant must gain a sense of predictability and trust in caregivers or risk developing a mistrustful nature
5.3.4.2. In autonomy vs shame and doubt, the toddler needs to become physically independent
5.3.4.3. In initiative vs guilt, the preschool child is developing emotional and psychological independence
5.3.4.4. In industry vs inferiority, school-age children are gaining competence and developing self-esteem