1. Language maintenance: both languages continue to be spoken.
2. Language shift: speakers shift to speaking the dominant language.
3. Multilingualism as s Societal Phenomenon
3.1. Fuller believes it is advantageous to master more languages, often claiming competence in languages to which they have had limited exposure.
3.2. Competences and convergence in multilingual societies
3.2.1. Balanced, native-like command of all the languages in the repertoire is rather uncommon.
3.2.2. When speakers use multiple languages and use them all in conversation, one possible consequence is the diffusion of certain features from one language to the other(s), specially syntactic features.
3.3. Language ideologies surrounding multilingualism
3.3.1. Multilingualism is often associated with immigrant status, and thus with groups who tend to occupy rather low positions in society.
3.3.2. Code-switching: switching between languages or dialects
3.4. Linguistic landscape
3.4.1. This refers to the display of languages in public spaces, including signs, billboards, advertisements, and graffiti.
3.4.2. A linguistic landscape is not: reflection of the official statuses of the languages used the linguistic diversity of the city relationship between languages.
3.5. Language attitudes in multilingual settings
3.5.1. Speakers' choice of code also reflect how they want others to view them: competence, integrity, and attractiveness.
3.5.2. Code and message are inseparable: the choices we make about the codes we speak influence how we are evaluated.
3.5.3. Many people have a monoglossic ideology: they believe that languages should be kept strictly separate.
4. Diglossia
4.1. Domains
4.1.1. Different circumstances are called "domains"
4.1.2. High varieties: delivering sermons and formal lectures, political speeches, etc.
4.1.3. Low varieties: giving instruction to workers in low-prestige occupations, conversation with familiars, soap operas, etc.
4.2. Language attituded and ideologies
4.2.1. Low variety could have so little prestige attached to it that people may even deny that they know it.
4.3. Language learning
4.3.1. All children learn the language variety.
4.3.2. High variety is also likely to be learn in some kind of formal setting.
4.4. The statuses of the High and the Low varieties
4.4.1. In diglossia, the varieties do not overlap in their functions because of their status differences.
4.4.2. High variety has been associated with an elite and low variety with everyone else.
4.5. Questioning diglossia
4.5.1. Stepkowska (2012) notes that in Switzerland, Swiss German has long had high prestige.
4.5.2. Managan (2003) reports that in Guadeloupe there is a frequent code-switching and nothing resembling diglossia in terms of functional distribution of languages.
4.6. "Diglossia" means "a situation where there are two distinct codes with clear functional separation. One code is employed in one set of characteristics and the other in an entirely different set.
5. Multilingual Discourse
5.1. Metaphorical and situational code-switching
5.1.1. Situational code-switching: the language used change according to the situation.
5.1.2. Metaphorical code-switching: draw on metaphors from to express their thoughts or ideas.
5.2. Accommodation and audience design
5.2.1. Convergence behavior: An individual may even be prepared to sacrifice something to gain social approval.
5.2.2. Divergence behavior: Distance yourself from the other interlocutor.
5.3. Code switching = multilingual discourse
5.4. The Markedness Model
5.4.1. The markedness model was originally designed to explain the social motivations of alternation between two languages in spoken conversation, but has also been applied to switching between dialects.
5.5. Multilingual identities
5.5.1. The social constructionist approach: identities are not seen as fixed but as fluid, multiple, and culturally constructed (gender, occupation, ethnicity…)
5.5.2. Communication Accommodations Theory: speakers are said to use language to position themselves vis-a-vis their interlocutors in various ways.