1. Lesson 3 Teaching-Learning Process & Curriculum Development
1.1. 3.1 Teaching as a Process in Curriculum
1.1.1. 3.1.1 What is teaching?
1.1.1.1. (1) Traditionalists' view - A process of dispensing knowledge to the mind of learner
1.1.1.1.1. Teacher's role - The ultimate authority who directs the learning process.
1.1.1.2. (2) Educational psycholoogists' view - A process of stimulating, directing, guiding learner, and evaluating the learning outcomes of teaching.
1.1.1.2.1. Teacher's role - The mentor who guides learners to self-directed learning.
1.1.1.3. Indicators of Efficient Teaching
1.1.1.3.1. (a) well planned
1.1.1.3.2. (b) provide meaningful learning experiences
1.1.1.3.3. (c) based on the theories of learning
1.1.1.3.4. (d) nurture thinking skills in students
1.1.1.3.5. (e) keep adapt to new stituations
1.1.1.3.6. (d) continuously reflect on own practices
1.1.2. 3.1.2 Teaching Process
1.1.2.1. (1) Planning phase - Document that outline teaching goals for a particular subject or topic.
1.1.2.1.1. (a) the needs of the learners
1.1.2.1.2. (b) the achievable goals to meet the needs
1.1.2.1.3. (c) the content to be taught
1.1.2.1.4. (d) the motivation to carry the goals
1.1.2.1.5. (e) the strategies to carry the goals
1.1.2.1.6. (f) the evaluation to measure learning outcomes
1.1.2.2. (2) Implementation phase - Exercuting a teaching plan into effect with
1.1.2.3. (3) Evaluation phase - The ongoing appraisal, which involves the process of monitoring progress, making adaptations, and evaluating impact.
1.1.2.4. Feedback - Constructive feedback provides useful information in adjusting the teaching plan, implementation and evaluation.
1.1.2.4.1. Reflection - A continuous process to recognize the strengths and weakness to guide on-going improvement in the program.
1.2. 3.2 Learning as a Process in Curriculum
1.2.1. 3.2.1 What is learning?
1.2.1.1. Learning is "a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning” (Ambrose et al, 2010, p.3)
1.2.2. 3.2.2 Learning Theories
1.2.2.1. (A) Behavioural learning theries
1.2.2.1.1. emphasize observable behaviour
1.2.2.2. (B) Cognitive learning theories
1.2.2.2.1. learning occurs through internal processing of information
1.2.2.3. (C) Discovery learning theory
1.2.2.3.1. construct knowledge through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences
1.2.2.4. (D) Reception learning
1.2.2.4.1. acquire knowledge primarily through the presented concepts, principles and ideas
1.2.2.5. (E) Gagne's Nine Events of instruction model
1.2.2.5.1. A systematic process that helps educators develop strategies and create activities for instructional classes.
1.2.2.5.2. Events of learning
1.3. 3.3 Teaching & Learning Go Together
1.3.1. Teaching and Learning is a combined process in a way that teaching is the cause and learning is the effect where learning outcomes indicate teaching quality.
1.3.2. Ways of Learning based on learning theories
1.3.2.1. (1) Learning by trial & error
1.3.2.1.1. A problem solving method in which multiple attempts are made to reach a solution.
1.3.2.2. (2) Learning by conditioning
1.3.2.2.1. Learning is associated with a condition or stimulus with a particular reaction or response to it.
1.3.2.3. (3) Learning by insight
1.3.2.3.1. A process that leads to a sudden realization regarding a problem, which requires higher thinking skills.
1.3.2.4. (4) Learning by observation & imitation through modeling
1.3.2.4.1. Learning occurs through observation and imitation from a model.
2. Lesson 1 Concepts, Nature & Purposes
2.1. 1.1 Point of Views in Curriculum
2.1.1. 1.1.1 Traditional
2.1.1.1. Hutchins's view on Permanent Studies
2.1.1.1.1. Basic rules of grammar, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics are emphasized.
2.1.1.2. Bestor's view on Intellectual Training
2.1.1.2.1. A curriculum must consist essentially of disciplined study in grammar, literature, writing, mathematics, sciences, history and foreign language.
2.1.1.3. Schwab's The Practical
2.1.1.3.1. A series of 'Practical' papers written by Joseph Schwab, which is based on educational commonplaces (learners, teachers, content, and context) coordinated by traditional problem-solving methods that use arts of the eclectic (connect theories with practices) for formulating curriculum.
2.1.1.4. Phenix's Structure of Knowledge
2.1.1.4.1. Curriculum content should be drawn from various disciplines, which is centered around the concepts of intelligence, creativity and moral commitment.
2.1.2. 1.1.2 Progressive
2.1.2.1. Dewey's Reflective Thinking
2.1.2.1.1. Reflective thinking is a tool to unify all the curricular elements, such as aims, goals, and objectives; subject content; learning experiences; and evaluation approaches.
2.1.2.2. Caswell and Campbell's Curriculum Development
2.1.2.2.1. Curriculum is composed of all of the educational experiences children have, which are enacted by their teacher.
2.1.2.3. Fundamentals of Curriculum Development (Smith, Stanley & Shores (1957).
2.1.2.3.1. Four principles for sequence: 1. Simple to complex learning 2. Prerequisite learning 3. Whole to part learning 4. Chronological learning
2.1.2.4. The Character of Curriculum (Marsh & Willis, 2007)
2.1.2.4.1. Curriculum is an interrelated set of plans and experiences which a student completes under the guidance of the school.
2.1.3. 1.1.3 Curriculum Development
2.1.3.1. Tyler's Rationale - 4 Basic Principles
2.1.3.1.1. (1) Identification of objectives
2.1.3.1.2. (2) Provision of learning experiences
2.1.3.1.3. (3) Organization of experiences
2.1.3.1.4. (4) Evaluation mechanisms
2.1.3.2. Taba's Grassroots Approach - 7 major steps
2.1.3.2.1. (1) diagnosis of learner’s need
2.1.3.2.2. (2) formulation of objectives
2.1.3.2.3. (3) selection of the content
2.1.3.2.4. (4) organization of the content
2.1.3.2.5. (5) selection of learning experiences
2.1.3.2.6. (6) organization of learning activities
2.1.3.2.7. (7) evaluation
2.2. 1.2 Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools (Allan Glatthorn, 2000)
2.2.1. 1.2.1 Recommended Curriculum
2.2.1.1. Curriculums recommended by the Ministry of Education, the Commission on Higher Education, or any professional organization.
2.2.2. 1.2.2 Written Curriculum
2.2.2.1. A lesson plan or syllabi implement by schools or any educational institution.
2.2.3. 1.2.3 Taught Curriculum
2.2.3.1. Planned Activities that are put into action in the classroom.
2.2.4. 1.2.4 Supported Curriculum
2.2.4.1. Additional tools and resources that support the learning-teaching activities.
2.2.5. 1.2.5 Assessed Curriculum
2.2.5.1. The effectiveness of curriculum is tested with a number of different assessment techniques by measuring students’ performance.
2.2.6. 1.2.6 Learned Curriculum
2.2.6.1. The capability (include additional changes in attitude and emotional wellbeing) that students should achieve it through learning objectives.
2.2.7. 1.2.7 Hidden Curriculum
2.2.7.1. School environment, teacher-student interation and peer influence made up this type of curriculum, which is not formally written down but may influence a student's learning outcome.
2.3. 1.3 Major Foundations of Curriculum
2.3.1. 1.3.1 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
2.3.1.1. Dewey's philosophy of education
2.3.1.1.1. “Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.” Dewey argued that curriculum should be relevant to students' lives.
2.3.1.2. Tyler's View of Philosophy in Relation to School Purposes
2.3.1.2.1. (1) Suggestions from Subjects Specialists
2.3.1.2.2. (2) Studies of Contemporary Life
2.3.1.2.3. (3) Use of Psychology of Learning
2.3.1.2.4. (4) Use of Philosophy
2.3.1.2.5. (5) Studies of Learners
2.3.1.3. (A) Perennialism
2.3.1.3.1. Curriculum is focused on classical subjects, literary analysis and considers curriculum as constant.
2.3.1.4. (B) Essentialism
2.3.1.4.1. The essential skills of the 3 R's and essential subjects of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language is the focus of the curriculum.
2.3.1.5. (C) Progressivism
2.3.1.5.1. The curriculum is focused on students' interest, human problems and affairs. The subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive.
2.3.1.6. (D) Reconstructionism
2.3.1.6.1. The focus of the curriculum is on present and future trends and issues of national and international interests.
2.3.2. 1.3.2 Historical Foundations of Curriculum
2.3.2.1. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)
2.3.2.1.1. Kilpatrick developed the Project Method for early childhood education, which was a form of Progressive Education that organized curriculum and classroom activities around a subject's central theme.
2.3.2.2. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
2.3.2.2.1. Bobbitt formulated five steps in curriculum making: (a) analysis of human experience, (b) job analysis, (c) deriving objectives, (d) selecting objectives, and (e) planning in detail.
2.3.2.3. Werret Charters (1875-1952)
2.3.2.3.1. Charters's most significant contribution to the field of curriculum development came in the form of his activity-analysisapproach to curriculum construction. Student inquiry and needs are emphasized.
2.3.2.4. Hrold Rugg (1886-1965)
2.3.2.4.1. Rugg's work was built on a thoughtful rationale that combined student interest with social worth.
2.3.2.5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
2.3.2.5.1. A curriculum should composed of all experiences of children would constantly change, evolving dynamically as children grew in social and educational maturity.
2.3.2.6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
2.3.2.6.1. The structure of the school curriculum had to be responsive to three central factors that represent the main elements of an educative experience: (1) the nature of the learner; (2) the values and aims of society; and (3) knowledge of subject matter.
2.3.3. 1.3.3 Psychological Foundations of Education
2.3.3.1. (A) Behaviorist Psychology
2.3.3.1.1. Edward Thorndike's Connectionism theory
2.3.3.1.2. Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
2.3.3.1.3. B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning
2.3.3.1.4. Albert Bandura's Modeling & Observation theory
2.3.3.1.5. Robert Gagne's Hierarchical Learning
2.3.3.2. (B) Cognitive Psychology
2.3.3.2.1. Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development
2.3.3.2.2. Lev Vygotsky' Social Constructivism
2.3.3.2.3. Howard Gardener's Multiple Intelligences
2.3.3.2.4. Felder & Silverman Learning Styles
2.3.3.2.5. Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligences
2.3.3.3. (C) Humanistic Psychology
2.3.3.3.1. Gestalt psychology
2.3.3.3.2. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs
2.3.3.3.3. Carl Rogers' non-directive approach
2.3.4. 1.3.4 Social Foundations of Education
2.3.4.1. Karl Marx (1818–1883)
2.3.4.1.1. “Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory. labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production, etc” (Marx and Engels 1982: 53).
2.3.4.2. Father of Socialogy of Education Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
2.3.4.2.1. Durkheim argued that schools were essential for 'imprinting' shared social values into the minds of children.
2.3.4.3. Max Weber (1868–1920)
2.3.4.3.1. Weber viewed the school, and all education, as a means of attaining greater power in society.
3. Lesson 2 Elements & Components
3.1. 2.1 Component 1 - Curriculum Aims, Goals & Objectives
3.1.1. 2.1.1 Aims of Elementary Education
3.1.1.1. (1) provide knowledge and skills to personal development
3.1.1.2. (2) learning experiences that increase child's responsiveness to society
3.1.1.3. (3) gauging child's allegiance to the nation
3.1.1.4. (4) orientate students towards work experience
3.1.2. 2.1.2 Aims of Secondary Education
3.1.2.1. (1) continuously promote the objectives of elementary education
3.1.2.2. (2) enhance students' aptitudes or tertiary education
3.1.3. 2.1.3 Aims of Tertiary Education
3.1.3.1. (1) promote national consciousness
3.1.3.2. (2) train manpower for national development
3.1.3.3. (3) cultivate professions for leadership of nation
3.1.3.4. (4) advance knowledge for improving human life
3.1.4. 2.1.4 School's Vision, Mission & Goals
3.1.4.1. Vision
3.1.4.1.1. A statement that describes the future goals of an educational organization
3.1.4.2. Mission
3.1.4.2.1. Statements that indicate how the school aims to achieve its vision.
3.1.4.3. Goals
3.1.4.3.1. General statements that delineate the intents and outcomes to be accomplished by the school.
3.1.5. 2.1.5 Educational Intention / Objectives
3.1.5.1. Bloom and Mager's definition
3.1.5.1.1. (1) Explicit Formulation - Students are expected through educative process
3.1.5.1.2. (2) Statements that proposed the intent changes in learner.
3.1.5.2. Behavioural terms
3.1.5.2.1. (1) Cognitive (Bloom et al, 1956) domain of thought process
3.1.5.2.2. (2) Affective (Krathwohl, 1964) domain of valuing, attitudes & appreciation
3.1.5.2.3. (3) Psychomotor (Simpson, 1972) domain of the use of psychomotor attributes
3.2. 2.2 Component 2 - Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
3.2.1. 2.2.1 Definition Curriculum content refers to the knowledge and skills to be taught and learned in school.
3.2.1.1. Subject-centered
3.2.1.1.1. The facts, concepts, theories, and principles that are taught and learned in specific academic courses.
3.2.1.2. Learner-centered
3.2.1.2.1. The student becomes a participant in the decision-making process of design- ing and selecting educational experiences.
3.2.2. 2.2.2 Criteria for the selection of content
3.2.2.1. (1) Self-sufficiency
3.2.2.1.1. Students attain maximum learning outcomes at the most economical manner.
3.2.2.2. (2) Significance
3.2.2.2.1. Organize in a way to develop every aspect of learning experiences to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
3.2.2.3. (3) Validity
3.2.2.3.1. The authenticity of the subject matter or selected content.
3.2.2.4. (4) Interest
3.2.2.4.1. Students learn best if the subject matter is meaningful to them.
3.2.2.5. (5) Utility
3.2.2.5.1. Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them.
3.2.2.6. (6) Learnability
3.2.2.6.1. The learning experiences must be adjusted to the abilities of the learners.
3.2.2.7. (7) Feasibility
3.2.2.7.1. Students must learn within the allowable time and the use of resources available.
3.2.3. 2.2.3 Principles of Curriculum Design
3.2.3.1. (1) Balance
3.2.3.1.1. Appropriateweight be given to each aspect of the design.
3.2.3.2. (2) Articulation
3.2.3.2.1. The interrelatedness and alliance of various aspects of the curriculum.
3.2.3.3. (3) Sequence
3.2.3.3.1. The logical arrangement (e.g. chronological learning) of the subject matter.
3.2.3.4. (4) Integration
3.2.3.4.1. To horizontally connect all types of knowledge and experiences containedwithin thecurriculum.
3.2.3.5. (5) Continuity
3.2.3.5.1. The repetition of continuous instruction to reinforce and increase depth and breadth of learning experience.
3.3. 2.3 Component 3 - Curriculum Experiences
3.3.1. 2.3.1 Teaching Strategies
3.3.1.1. The methods, techniques, procedures and processes that an educator to convert the written curriculum to instruction.
3.3.2. 2.3.2 Educational Activities
3.3.2.1. Activities that involve student interaction with content, and gain feedback on specific progress towards learning objectives of the course.
3.4. 2.4 Component 4 - Curriculum Evaluation
3.4.1. 2.4.1 Purposes
3.4.1.1. The formal determination of the quality and effectiveness of the curriculum, which will help in identifying areas in need of improvement.
3.4.2. 2.4.2 Stufflebeam's CIPP model
3.4.2.1. A framework for guiding evaluations of a curriculum, serves to identify strengths and limitations in its implementation.
3.4.3. 2.4.1 Purposes
3.4.3.1. The formal determination of the quality and effectiveness of the curriculum, which will help in identifying areas in need of improvement.
3.5. 2.5 Curriculum Approaches (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009)
3.5.1. 2.5.1 Behavioural Approach
3.5.1.1. This approach is orientated to the behavioural objectives, which is the observable behaviour expected of students after the teaching and learning process.
3.5.2. 2.5.2 Managerial Approach
3.5.2.1. More emphasis on the supervisory and administrative aspects of curriculum. General manager (or instructional leader) takes charge of the organizational and implementation aspects of the process.
3.5.3. 2.5.3 System Approach
3.5.3.1. Utilize a meta-process to systematically plan, develop, implement and evaluate a program. Organizational flow chart facilitates the curriculum development in a holistic manner.
3.5.4. 2.5.4 Humanistic Approach
3.5.4.1. The needs and interests of a learner are the prime consideration of a curriculum.