1. General Models
1.1. Game-Focused
1.1.1. Wittgenstein's Problem of Games
1.1.1.1. No mention of play
1.1.1.2. Argues that games only have in-direct similarities and no common features.
1.1.1.3. Limited by Germanic language used for his explanation. The semantics of 'games' didn't define formal or informal games. I.e. maybe 'games' was too broad for a definition?
1.1.2. Huizinga's Magic Circle
1.1.2.1. Play is important for culture
1.1.2.2. Focused on situating games, instead of defining games
1.1.2.3. Observation of Magic Circle in Games, 1938. Games (inner circle) are separate and do no affect the real world (outside of the circle).
1.1.2.3.1. Magic Circle's Impact via Criticism
1.1.2.3.2. Limitations
1.1.3. McLuhan's Games as Cultural Reflections
1.1.3.1. Two Claims
1.1.3.1.1. Games help release tension
1.1.3.1.2. Games exist from culture
1.2. Play-Focused
1.2.1. Bateson's Play As Communication
1.2.1.1. Theory on Metacommunication, 1951
1.2.1.1.1. Learning through play via communication, i.e. actions's meaning changes in different situations, dependant on context. Expand this ability into other parts of your life as you grow up.
1.2.1.1.2. Theory applied to AR games, but has challenges with the "knowing" you are playing, during alternate reality games. Blurring of the lines between fiction and reality.
1.2.2. Sutton-Smith's Games as Play
1.2.2.1. Games are finite, fixed, and goal oriented. Reflect society, i.e. complex social systems create complex games
1.2.2.2. "Games as Play" but refused to give a concise definition of play...
1.3. Play & Game Focused
1.3.1. Caillois' Sociology of Play
1.3.1.1. Focus on Play
1.3.1.1.1. Essential Qualities of Play
1.3.1.2. Focus on Games
1.3.1.2.1. Four categories of games based on dominant features
1.3.1.2.2. Games exist on a continuum: *paidia* (playfulness) and *ludus * (formal, rule-based game behaviour)
1.3.2. Mead's Role Training
1.3.2.1. Play is make-believe
1.3.2.2. The elements of play and games come together and built the foundation of adult communication.
1.3.2.3. Social circles provide children with opportunities to develop their personalities by learning rules related with belonging, and taking on various roles.
1.4. Video-Game Focused
1.4.1. Jenkin's Art of the Game
1.4.1.1. Inspired by Seldes look at art being considered as America's most important contribution to the art world.
1.4.1.2. States that most games lack innovation, and are too rule based as if following a formula and are predictable.
2. Formal Definitions
2.1. Not Explicitly Video-Game Based
2.1.1. David Parlett
2.1.1.1. Two defining components in games: *ends* and *means *
2.1.1.1.1. Ends i.e. Games are contest-based and therefore games always have winners.
2.1.1.1.2. Means i.e. The game's equipment and the rules.
2.1.2. Bernard Suits
2.1.2.1. Engaging in activities that follow necessary rules to allow gameplay.
2.1.2.2. Views rules in games as limiting the efficiency possible during gameplay. However, enjoyment of games stems from restrictive rules.
2.1.3. Katie Salen & Eric Zimmerman
2.1.3.1. Rules define the artificial conflict which creates a quantifiable outcome.
2.1.4. Jesper Juul
2.1.4.1. Games are rule-based, with variable outcomes dependant on quantifiable outcome. Player's efforts guides outcome and consequences are optional/negotiable.
2.1.4.2. Based on player's attitude towards the activity.
2.1.4.3. Model on defining standard games for classic game models. *Not Games (Borderline Cases[Games]) *
2.2. Explicitly Video-Games Based
2.2.1. Chris Crawford
2.2.1.1. Four Common Features of Video Games
2.2.1.1.1. Representation: Games are based off subjective reality in the form of external situations.
2.2.1.1.2. Interaction: Engagement is maintained by the players belief that their choices meaningfully influence the game.
2.2.1.1.3. Conflict: Obstacles are necessary to gameplay to challenge the player from reaching their goal.
2.2.1.1.4. Safety: Consequences in games exist, but lack real-life weight to them, i.e. safe consequences from artificial situations.
2.2.1.2. Games are systems. However, games provide safe in-direct consequences which corresponds with the thinking that games are in the Magic Circle.
2.3. Commonalities
2.3.1. Games are rule systems
2.3.2. Game design allows for specific goals
2.3.2.1. Activities (events or actions) should provide a reward system.
2.3.3. Showcase feedback or goals
3. Pragmatic Definitions
3.1. Used as tools for game design.
3.1.1. Sie Meier
3.1.1.1. Simplistic view that [good] games are a series of interesting choices.
3.1.1.1.1. No single correct choices bringing in the element of chance and player's choice.
3.1.1.2. Describes the essence of strategy games, but not adventure games.
3.1.1.3. Helpful but insufficient definition
3.1.2. Robin Huicke, Marc LeBlanc, Robert Zubek (Game Developers Conference)
3.1.2.1. 3 Different Dimensions of Game: MDA Model
3.1.2.1.1. Mechanics (rules & code)
3.1.2.1.2. Dynamics (events during gameplay)
3.1.2.1.3. Aesthetics (emotional responses)
3.1.2.2. Created MDA Model as a tool to understand how games work
3.1.2.2.1. Positives
3.1.2.2.2. Limitations
4. Genre Systems
4.1. Based on a variety of criteria; multidimensional.
4.2. No objective method for analysing genres when comparing games. Arbitrary due to genre being a construct.
4.3. Genres systems create expecations for players to guide their interest, but require use of a criteria based on consistent genre labels.
4.4. Mark Wolf
4.4.1. Argues that genre systems are typically overviews based on how the gameplay is seen or represented on screen.
4.4.2. A focus on interactivity of games is vital for defining it's genre due to it being an essential component of all game's structures.
4.4.2.1. Heavily linked with game goals or objectives.
4.4.2.2. Created a list of 43 genres based on interactivity, which lacked clarity of categorization.
4.5. Espen Aarseth
4.5.1. Define genres by a system with many variables as they will constantly overlap; never a singular theme (variable)
4.5.1.1. Some positives and many limitations
4.6. Magazines & Websites: Gamespot.com
4.6.1. 30 genres of games based on specifics. However, no defined standard principles.
4.7. Genre system based on success: "What does it take to succeed in the game?" Focus on feature of achieving the goals in the game.
4.7.1. Limitation in the form of mixed genre games called Blended/Hybrid games. Can also include games that mix digital and analogue games.
4.7.2. Four Genres of Games
4.7.2.1. Action Games: Require motor skill and hand-eye coordination to meet goals. Typically fighting or physical drama involved.
4.7.2.2. Strategy Games: Distant overarching gameplay role instead of player-focused.
4.7.2.2.1. Real-time strategy: continuously played with no pauses.
4.7.2.2.2. Turn-based strategy: pauses in gameplay for player to make choices.
4.7.2.3. Adventure Games: Require deep thinking and patience for use of logic and deduction. Typically narrative-based or mystery, exploration and puzzles.
4.7.2.4. Process-Oriented Games: Player is immersed in a system for entertainment.
4.7.2.4.1. Two types of designs: exploring the world, or controlling and manage a variable.
4.7.2.4.2. Simulation games: mimic real-world activities and experiences