1. Cardiovascular changes
1.1. Isolated systolic hypertension
1.1.1. Systolic- > 140 mmHg
1.1.2. Diastolic- < 90 mmHg
1.2. Heart dimensions stay the same
1.3. Heart muscle loses efficiency and contractile strength
1.4. Reduced cardiac output
1.5. Valves become thick and rigid especially atrioventricular valve
1.5.1. Left ventricular hypertrophy
1.5.1.1. Prolonged relaxation phase increases the amount of blood in the chamber
1.6. Blood vessels reduce elasticity
1.6.1. Calcification of elastin fibers
1.6.2. Increase in collagen
1.7. Oxygen used less efficiently
1.8. Aorta becomes dilated and enlarged
1.9. Resistance increases
1.10. Stroke volume decreases by 1% per year
1.11. More prominent arteries in head and necklace
1.12. Prolonged filling and emptying of heart
1.13. Incomplete valve closure
1.14. Pacemaker cells become irregular
1.15. Sinus node thickens
1.16. Disease prevalence
1.16.1. Atherosclerosis
1.16.2. Arteriosclerosis
1.16.3. Cardiac disease
1.16.4. Hypertension
1.16.5. CHF
1.16.6. Tachycardia or bradycardia
1.16.7. Murmurs
1.16.8. Stroke
2. Respiratory changes
2.1. Decreased respiratory muscle strength
2.2. Decreased response to hypoxia and hypercapnia
2.3. Stiff chest wall
2.4. Calcification of costal cartilage
2.5. Reduction of cough and laryngeal reflexes
2.6. Thoracic muscles become more rigid
2.7. Reduced basilar inflation
2.8. Loss of elasticity
2.9. Decreased ciliary action
2.10. Hypertrophy of bronchial mucous gland
2.11. Breathing changes
2.11.1. Reduced PO2
2.11.2. Reduced amount of oxygen that can be consumed
2.11.3. Forced expiration volume decreases
2.11.4. Delayed oxygen perfusion
2.11.5. Reduced vital capacity
2.11.6. Increased residual capacity
2.12. Nasal changes
2.12.1. Thicker secretions
2.12.2. Rotation downwards
2.12.2.1. Septal deviations
2.12.3. Obstructive apnea
2.12.3.1. Trouble sleeping
2.13. Disease prevalence
2.13.1. Pneumonia
2.13.2. Flu/influenza
2.13.3. COPD
2.13.4. Common cold
3. Genitourinary changes
3.1. Kidney
3.1.1. Renal mass becomes smaller
3.1.2. Renal tissue growth declines
3.1.3. Atrophy of the kidney
3.1.4. Pharmacokinetic decrease in excretion of drugs
3.1.5. Decrease in nephrons
3.1.6. Reducing renal blood flow
3.1.6.1. Renal toxicity risk
3.1.7. Decreased GFR
3.1.7.1. Reduces by 1/2 between the ages of 20-90
3.2. Bladder
3.2.1. Decreased bladder capacity
3.2.2. Reduced bladder elasticity
3.2.2.1. Urinary frequency
3.2.2.2. Urgency
3.2.2.3. Retention
3.2.2.4. Urinary incontinence
3.2.2.4.1. Not a normal aging change
3.2.2.5. Nocturia
3.2.3. Weaker bladder muscles
3.3. Ureters
3.3.1. Decrease in tubular function
3.3.1.1. Less efficient exchange of water and sodium
3.3.1.1.1. Hyponatremia risk
3.3.1.2. Suppression of ADH
3.3.1.3. Decrease reabsorption of glucose
3.3.1.3.1. Risk for proteinuria and glycosurias
3.3.2. More difficult to empty bladder
3.3.3. Micturition reflex delayed
3.3.4. Weakened pelvic diaphragm
4. Gastrointestinal changes
4.1. Mouth, tongue, teeth
4.1.1. Decreased saliva production
4.1.2. Increased risk for aspiration and indigestion
4.1.3. Flattened chewing cusps
4.1.4. Gingival retraction and decreased dentin production
4.1.5. Loss of tongue papillae
4.1.6. Brittle tooth enamel
4.1.7. Cavities increase
4.1.8. Poor hygiene due to weakness and confusion
4.1.9. Disease prevalence
4.1.9.1. Periodontal disease
4.1.9.2. Aspiration
4.2. Atrophy of the small and large intestine
4.3. Increased risk for aspiration, indigestion, and constipation
4.4. Decreased gastric motility
4.5. Impaired sensation to defecate
4.6. Esophagus
4.6.1. Dilation
4.6.2. Slower esophageal emptying because of decreased propulsion
4.6.3. Weakened gag reflex
4.6.4. Relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter
4.6.4.1. Presbyesophagus risk
4.6.4.1.1. Decreased propulsion waves
4.6.5. Disease prevalence
4.6.5.1. Hiatal hernia
4.6.5.1.1. Stomach pushes up through the diaphragm muscle
4.6.5.2. Esophageal cancer
4.6.5.3. Aspiration
4.6.5.4. GERD
4.6.5.4.1. Acid or bile irritates the esophagus
4.7. Liver
4.7.1. Reduced volume and weight
4.7.2. Decreased ability to regenerate cells
4.7.3. Pharmacokinetics decreased in absorption of drugs
4.7.4. Less absorption of cholesterol
4.7.5. Disease prevalence
4.7.5.1. Liver failure
4.7.5.2. Gallstones
4.7.5.3. Cirrhosis
4.7.5.3.1. Scarring of the liver
4.8. Stomach and intestines
4.8.1. Small intestine decreases in size and weight
4.8.2. Less absorption of nutrients and vitamins
4.8.2.1. Fat
4.8.2.2. Vitamin B12
4.8.2.3. Iron
4.8.2.4. Calcium
4.8.3. Higher pH in stomach
4.8.4. Decreased hunger urges
4.8.5. Reduced motility
4.8.6. Constipation
4.8.7. Slower peristalsis
4.8.8. Gastric mucosa shrinks
4.8.9. Decrease pepsin, lipase, pancreatic enzymes, and hydrochloric acid
4.8.10. Gastric irritation
4.8.11. Slower peristalsis
4.8.12. Intestinal blood flow decreases
4.8.13. Loss of internal sphincter tone
4.8.14. Decreased elasticity of stomach
4.8.15. Less secretions to stomach and intestines
4.8.16. Nerve impulses slow down to bowel
4.8.17. Disease prevalence
4.8.17.1. Constipation
4.8.17.2. C.difficile
4.8.17.3. Incotinence
4.8.17.4. Colon cancer
4.8.17.5. Electrolyte imbalance
5. Musculoskeletal changes
5.1. Bone
5.1.1. Decrease in height
5.1.1.1. Shortening of vertebrae
5.1.1.2. Thinning discs
5.1.2. Bones become brittle
5.1.3. Decreased calcium absorption
5.1.4. Slower production of new bone
5.1.5. Disease prevalence
5.1.5.1. Kyphosis
5.1.5.2. Osteoporosis
5.1.5.2.1. Especially women due to lack of calcium consumption
5.1.5.3. Broken bones
5.2. Joint
5.2.1. Enlargement of joints
5.2.2. Deterioration of cartilage
5.2.3. Increase in calcification
5.2.4. Loss of flexibility
5.2.5. Inflammation
5.2.5.1. Spurs
5.2.5.1.1. Occur due to formation of new bone
5.2.5.2. Arthritis
5.2.5.2.1. Stiffness
5.2.5.2.2. Deformities
5.2.5.2.3. Pain
5.3. Muscle
5.3.1. Decreased bone mass and mineralization
5.3.2. Muscle fiber atrophy
5.3.3. Decrease in muscle strength and movement
5.3.4. Fibrous tissue replaces muscle mass
5.3.5. Disease prevalence
5.3.5.1. Muscle cramping and tremors
5.3.5.2. Fall risk
5.3.5.3. Sarcopenia
5.3.5.3.1. Loss of muscle tissue
6. Immune changes
6.1. Thymus mass decreases
6.2. Decline in cell mediated immunity
6.3. T cell production and activity decreases
6.4. IGM decreases
6.5. IGA and IGG increase
6.6. Inflammation defense decreases
6.7. Cytokines increase
6.8. Disease prevalence
6.8.1. Infections
6.8.1.1. Bacterial
6.8.1.2. Viral
6.8.2. Nosocomial infections
6.8.3. Tuberculosis
6.8.4. Herpes Zoster
6.8.5. Cancer
6.8.6. Flu
7. Reproductive changes
7.1. Male
7.1.1. Sperm count decreased
7.1.2. Prostate enlargement
7.1.3. Testosterone decreases
7.1.4. Sclerosis of the penis
7.1.5. Testes shrink
7.1.6. Increase in luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone
7.1.7. Disease prevalence
7.1.7.1. BPH
7.1.7.2. Prostate cancer
7.1.7.3. Bladder cancer
7.1.7.4. UTI
7.2. Female
7.2.1. Loss of subcutaneous fat
7.2.2. Thinner and less vascular epithelium
7.2.3. Smaller ovaries
7.2.4. Cervix shrinks in size
7.2.5. Uterus shrinks
7.2.6. Ovaries become smaller and thicken
7.2.7. Labia flattens
7.2.8. Shrinkage and shortening of the Fallopian tubes
7.2.9. Menopause
7.2.10. Decrease in estrogen
7.2.11. Less secretory fluid
7.2.12. Disease prevalence
7.2.12.1. Ovarian cancer
7.2.12.2. UTI
7.2.12.3. Cancer of the endometrium
7.2.12.4. Breast cancer
8. Nervous system changes
8.1. Decline in weight and blood flow to the brain
8.2. Reduction in neurons, nerve fibers, and cerebral blood flow
8.3. Slow responses to change in balance
8.4. Decreased temperature regulation
8.5. Changes in sleep patterns with frequent awakening
8.6. Disease prevalence
8.6.1. Delirium
8.6.1.1. Reversible, acute confusion
8.6.2. Dementia
8.6.2.1. Irreversible, progressive impairment in cognitive function
8.7. CNS
8.7.1. Decline in weight
8.7.2. Lower nerve conduction
8.7.3. Hypothalamus temperature malfunction
8.7.4. Brain cells decline
8.7.5. Neurofibrillary tangles
8.7.5.1. Increased risk for
8.7.5.1.1. Alzheimer's
8.7.6. Memory loss
8.7.7. Blood flow decreases
8.7.8. Decrease in nerve conduction, neurons, and nerve fibers
8.8. PNS
8.8.1. Impulse conduction decreases to reinervate nerve fibers
8.8.2. Myelin sheath is degernated
8.8.3. Slower responses
8.8.4. New axons decrease in size
9. Sensory changes
9.1. Decreased vision
9.1.1. Lens elasticity decreases
9.1.2. Pupil size decrease
9.1.3. Decreased ability to adapt to light
9.1.4. Narrowing of visual field causing decrease in peripheral vision
9.1.5. Alterations in blood supply to eye
9.1.6. Rhodopsin rods decreasing causing
9.1.6.1. Decreased night vision
9.1.7. Decreased lacrimal secretions causing dry eyes
9.1.8. Lenses
9.1.8.1. Opicification
9.1.8.2. Increase density
9.1.8.3. Muscle fibers stiffen
9.1.9. Retina
9.1.9.1. Alteration in blood supply
9.1.9.2. Photoreceptor cells lost
9.1.10. Disease prevalence
9.1.10.1. Presbyopia
9.1.10.2. Glaucoma
9.1.10.2.1. Increase ocular pressure
9.1.10.3. Cataract
9.1.10.3.1. Clouding of lense
9.1.10.4. Macular degeneration
9.1.10.4.1. Progressive vision loss
9.2. Decreased hearing
9.2.1. Progressive hearing loss
9.2.2. Distortion of high pitched noises
9.2.3. Cerumen increases
9.2.4. Decreased blood supply
9.2.5. Basilar membrane becomes less flexible
9.2.6. Endolymph production reduced
9.2.7. Tympanic membrane atrophies
9.2.8. Increased keratin production
9.2.9. Alteration in equilibrium
9.2.10. Disease prevalence
9.2.10.1. Ototoxicity
9.2.10.1.1. Multiple drugs can cause this for example NSAIDS, aspirin, Gentamicin, chemotherapeutic drugs, loop diuretics, and anti malaria drugs
9.2.10.1.2. Pharmacodynamics of these drugs causes the ototoxicity
9.2.10.2. Presbycusis
9.3. Decreased taste and smell
9.3.1. Taste acuity is dependent on smell
9.3.2. Sense of smell decreases
9.3.3. Atrophy of the tongue
9.3.4. Decrease in number of cells in sensory lining
9.3.5. Reduced taste sensation
9.3.6. Decreased discrimination of odorsf
9.3.7. Less cells in the olfactory bulb
9.3.8. Decreased saliva
9.3.9. Poor oral hygiene
9.4. Decreased touch
9.4.1. Reduction of tactile sensation
9.4.2. Reduced ability to sense pressure, discomfort, and changes in temperatures
9.4.3. Decrease in touch receptors
10. Endocrine system
10.1. Thyroid
10.1.1. Decrease function
10.1.2. Atrophy
10.1.3. Lower metabolic rate
10.1.4. Reduced iodine reuptake
10.1.5. Increased modular activity
10.1.6. Reduced T3 release
10.1.7. Reduced parathyroid hormone
10.1.8. Disease prevalence
10.1.8.1. Hypothyroidism
10.1.8.2. Depression
10.1.8.3. Osteoporosis
10.2. Pituitary gland
10.2.1. ACTH secretion decreases
10.2.2. Volume decreases by 20%
10.2.3. Decrease in secretion of hormones
10.2.3.1. TSH
10.2.3.2. ACTH
10.2.3.3. Follicle stimulating hormone
10.2.3.4. Luteinizing hormone
10.2.3.5. Leutropic hormone
10.2.4. Gonadal secretions decline
10.2.4.1. Estrogen
10.2.4.2. Progesterone
10.2.4.3. Testosterone
10.3. Pancreas
10.3.1. Decreased glucose metabolism
10.3.1.1. Higher blood sugar levels
10.3.2. Delayed insulin release
10.3.3. Disease prevalence
10.3.3.1. Type 2 diabetes
10.3.3.2. Dementia
10.3.3.3. Pancreatic cancer
10.3.3.4. Pancreatitis
10.4. Adrenal cortex
10.4.1. Secretory activity decreases
10.4.1.1. Aldosterone
10.4.1.2. Glucocorticoids
10.4.1.3. 17-ketosteroids
10.4.1.4. Progesterone
10.4.1.5. Androgen
10.4.1.6. Estrogen
10.4.2. Disease prevalence
10.4.2.1. Adrenal insufficiency
10.4.2.2. Addison's disease
11. Integumentary changes
11.1. Flattening of the dermal-epidermal junction
11.2. Reduced thickness and vascularity of the dermis
11.3. Slowing of epidermal proliferation
11.4. Increased quantity of degeneration of elastin fibers
11.5. Collagen fibers become more coarse and random
11.5.1. Reduced skin elasticity
11.6. Dermis becomes thinner and avascular
11.7. Skin becomes more dry and fragile
11.8. Subcutaneous fat is lost
11.9. Lines and wrinkles become apparent
11.10. Skin breakdown is more common
11.11. Age spots
11.12. Scalp, pubic, and auxiliary hair becomes gray and thins or is lost
11.13. Women may grow facial hair
11.14. Fingernails grow more slowly
11.15. Perspiration is reduced
11.15.1. Sweats glands and bulbs decrease in size
11.16. Hair in the nose and ears become thicker
11.17. Disease prevalence
11.17.1. Benign/malignant skin neoplasms
11.17.2. Skin infections