1. GLOMEROMYCOTA
1.1. glomeromycetes were once considered zygomycetes
1.1.1. classified in a separate clade
1.2. form arbuscular mycorrhizae
1.2.1. ECTO-
1.2.1.1. form sheaths of hyphae over the surface of a root and typically grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex
1.2.2. ENDO- (arbuscular)
1.2.2.1. extend arbuscules through the root cell wall and into tubes formed by pushing inward of thw root cell plasma membrane
2. BASIDIOMYCOTA
2.1. include mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi
2.2. Some form mycorrhizae; others are plant parasites
2.3. defined by a clublike structure called a basidium
2.3.1. a transient diploid stage in the life cycle
2.4. also called club fungi
2.5. Many are decomposers of wood
2.6. can produce mushrooms quickly
2.7. Some species may produce “fairy rings”
2.7.1. rings of mushrooms
3. LICHENS
3.1. a symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism + fungus
3.2. Millions of photosynthetic cells are held in a mass of fungal hyphae
3.3. Photosynthetic organism = green algae or cyanobacteria
3.3.1. Algae: provide carbon compounds
3.3.2. Cyanobacteria: Provide carbon compounds and sometimes organic nitrogen
3.4. Fungal organism = most often an ascomycete
3.5. Fructose shrublike lichens
3.5.1. foliose leaflike lichens
3.5.1.1. Crustose (encrusting) lichens
3.6. Reproduce sexually and asexually.
3.6.1. Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation or the formation of soredia, small clusters of hyphae with embedded algae
3.7. The symbioses are so complete that lichens are given scientific names
3.8. Algae or cyanobacteria occupy an inner layer below the lichen surface
4. Fungi as Parasites
4.1. About 30% of known fungal species are parasites or pathogens
4.2. Ergot of rye
4.2.1. Ascomycete-produces toxins
4.2.2. Ergotism is characterized by gangrene, nervous spasms, burning sensations, hallucinations, and temporary insanity
4.3. general term for a fungal infection in animals is mycosis
4.3.1. Ringworm and athlete’s foot (human mycoses)
4.4. Systemic mycoses spread through the body
4.5. Some mycoses are opportunistic
4.5.1. yeast infections
5. ZYGOMYCETES
5.1. exhibit great diversity of life histories
5.1.1. nclude fast-growing molds, parasites, and commensal symbionts
5.2. The zygomycetes are named for their sexually produced zygosporangia
5.2.1. site of karyogamy and then meiosis
5.2.2. esistant to freezing and dryingcan survive unfavorable conditions
5.3. Some zygomycetes, such as Pilobolus, can actually “aim” and shoot their sporangia toward bright light
6. Mighty Mushrooms
6.1. Diverse and widespread
6.2. Essential for the well-being of most terrestrial ecosystems
6.2.1. they break down organic material
6.2.2. recycle vital nutrients
6.3. About 100,000 species of fungi have been described
6.3.1. estimated there are actually 1.5 million species
6.4. Armillaria ostoyae
6.4.1. 965 hectares 10,000 m2( > 9 million m2)
7. Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles
7.1. Fungi propagate themselves by producing vast numbers of spores, either sexually or asexually
7.2. Fungi can produce spores from different types of life cycles
8. CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA
8.1. found in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats including hydrothermal vents
8.2. Can be decomposers, parasites, or mutualists
8.2.1. approximatley 1000 species are decomposers.
8.3. Chytrids are unique among fungi in having flagellated spores, called zoospores
8.4. diverged early in fungal evolution
8.5. have cell walls made of chitin
8.5.1. structural polysaccharides, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods
8.6. share certain key enzymes and metabolic pathways with other fungal group
8.7. some form colonies with hyphae
8.7.1. hyphae-one of many connected filaments that collectively make up the mycelium of a fungus
9. ASCOMYCETES
9.1. (Ascomycota) live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
9.2. produce sexual spores in saclike ascicontained in Ascocarp.
9.2.1. fruiting body of a sac fungus
9.3. commonly called sac fungi
9.4. vary in size and complexity from unicellular yeasts to elaborate cup fungi and morels
9.5. include plant pathogens, decomposers, and symbionts
9.6. reproduce asexually by conidia
9.6.1. haploid spore produced at the tip of a specialized hypha in ascomycetes during sexual reproduction
10. PROVIDE THE ENVIRONMENT FOR GROWTH
11. Practical Uses of Fungi for Humans
11.1. Eat many fungi
11.2. Make cheeses, alcoholic beverages, and bread
11.3. Treatment of bacterial infections-antibiotics
11.4. For example, the ascomycete Penicillium
11.4.1. has the philiads, conidas, conidophore
11.5. Genetic research on fungi is leading to applications in biotechnology
11.5.1. For example, scientists are using Saccharomyces(Yeast) to study homologs of the genes involved in Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases
11.5.1.1. For example, insulin-like growth factor can be produced in the fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae
11.5.1.2. For example, insulin-like growth factor can be produced in the fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae
12. Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption
12.1. Key traits
12.1.1. Nutrition and Ecology
12.1.1.1. Fungi are heterotrophs
12.1.1.1.1. Absorptive heterotrophy
12.1.1.2. The versatility of these enzymes contributes to fungi’s ecological success
12.1.1.2.1. Evolutionary advantage
12.1.2. Lifestyle
12.1.2.1. Fungi exhibit diverse lifestyles
12.1.2.1.1. Decomposers Parasites Mutualists
12.1.3. Body Structure
12.1.3.1. The most common are multicellular filaments and single cells (yeasts)
12.1.3.1.1. Some species grow as either filaments or yeasts, Some both
12.1.3.2. The morphology of multicellular fungi enhancestheir ability to absorb nutrients
12.1.3.3. Fungi consist of mycelia, networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption
12.1.3.3.1. mycelium’s structure maximizes its surface-to-volume ratio
12.1.3.4. Most fungi have hyphae divided into cells by septa, with pores allowing cell-to-cell movement of organelles
12.1.3.5. Coenocytic fungi lack septa and have a continuous cytoplasmic mass with hundreds or thousands of nuclei
13. Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi
13.1. Some hyphae are adapted for trapping and killing prey
13.2. Some unique fungi have specialized hyphae called haustoriathat allow them to penetrate the tissues of their host
13.3. Mycorrhizaeare mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
13.3.1. Deliver phosphate ions and minerals to plants,
13.3.2. Mycorrhizal fungi colonize soils by the dispersal of haploid cells called spores
13.3.3. Most vascular plants have mycorrhizae
13.4. Ectomycorrhizal fungi form sheaths of hyphae over a root and also grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex
13.5. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi extend hyphae through the cell walls of root cells and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane
14. Asexual Reproduction
14.1. Molds produce haploid spores by mitosis and form visible mycelia
14.2. yeasts reproduce asexually by simple cell division and the pinching of “bud cells” from a parent cell
14.3. Some fungi can grow as yeasts and as filamentous mycelia
14.4. Many molds and yeasts have no known sexual stage
14.5. Mycologists have traditionally called these deuteromycetes
14.5.1. Reclassified once their sexual stage is discovered
14.5.2. Mycologists can now also use genomic techniques to classify fungi
15. The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist
15.1. Fungi and animals are more closely related to each other than they are to plants or other eukaryotes
15.2. Opisthokonts clade:
15.2.1. Fungi, Animals, Protists (Nucleariids)
15.3. Early-Diverging Fungal Groups
15.3.1. Genomic studies have identified chytrids in the genus Rozella as an early diverging fungal lineage
15.3.1.1. Rozella and other members of the unicellular group, “cryptomycota”lack chitin-rich cell walls
15.3.1.1.1. Rozella and other members of the unicellular group, “cryptomycota”lack chitin-rich cell walls
15.4. The Move to Land
15.4.1. Fungi were among the earliest colonizers of land
15.4.1.1. Fossil evidence
15.4.1.1.1. fungi formed mutualistic relationships with early land plants
15.4.2. Genomic analysis
15.4.2.1. Genes (sym genes) involved in mycorrhizal formation were likely present in the common ancestor to land plants