1. Sensory
1.1. Vision
1.1.1. Normal effects from aging
1.1.1.1. Presbyopia
1.1.2. Common abnormal effects
1.1.2.1. Cataracts
1.1.2.2. Retinopathy
1.1.2.3. Glaucoma
1.1.2.4. Macular Degeneration
1.2. Hearing
1.2.1. Normal effects from aging
1.2.1.1. Presbycusis
1.2.2. Common abnormal effects
1.2.2.1. Inner ear problems caused by
1.2.2.1.1. Vascular disorders
1.2.2.1.2. Viral infections
1.2.2.2. Presbycusis
1.2.2.3. Otosclerosis
1.2.2.4. Tinnitus
1.2.2.5. Infections
2. Immune System
2.1. Normal effects of aging
2.1.1. Thymus gland declines in size
2.1.2. Increased number of immature T cells
2.1.3. T-Cell function declines
2.1.3.1. Reduced response to foreign antigens
2.1.3.2. Decrease in cell-mediated and humoral immunity
2.1.4. Increased need for Immunologic Health promotion
2.1.4.1. Immunizations
2.1.4.2. Diet with specific nutrients
2.1.4.3. Exercise
2.1.4.4. Stress management
2.2. Common abnormal effects
2.2.1. Increased incidence of cancer
2.2.2. Increased infections have tendacy to have more profound consequences
2.2.3. Increased septicemia hospitalizations
2.2.4. delayed diagnosis of infections secondary to failure to seek help for atypical symptoms
2.2.5. Herpes Zoster
2.2.5.1. Reactivation of latent varicella virus
2.2.6. Pneumonia
2.2.6.1. One of leading causes of death in older adults
2.2.7. Influenza
3. Digestive System
3.1. Normal effects of aging
3.1.1. Atrophy of the tongue affects taste buds and decreases taste sensation
3.1.2. Saliva production decreases
3.1.2.1. Swallowing may be difficult
3.1.3. Presbyesophagus results in weaker esophageal contractions and weakness of the sphincter
3.1.4. Esophageal and stomach motility decreases
3.1.4.1. Risk for aspiration and indigestion
3.1.5. Decreased elasticity of the stomach
3.1.5.1. Reduces the amount of food accommodation at one time
3.1.6. Stomach has higher pH as a result of decline in hydrochloric acid and Pepsin
3.1.7. Decline in hydrochloric acid
3.1.7.1. Increase in incidence of gastric irritation
3.1.7.2. Interferes with absorption of calcium, iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12
3.1.8. Decline in pepsin
3.1.8.1. Interferes with absorption of protein
3.1.9. Fewer cells on absorbing surface of intestinal wall impact the absorption of dextrose, xylose, and vitamins B and D
3.1.10. Slower peristalsis, inactivity, reduced food/fluid intake, drugs, and low fiber diet
3.1.10.1. Increase in the risk of constipation
3.1.11. Sensory perception decreases
3.1.11.1. May lead to constipation or incomplete emptying of the bowel
3.1.12. Bile salt synthesis decreases
3.1.12.1. Increase in the risk of gallstone development
3.1.13. Pancreas changes
3.1.13.1. Affects digestion of fats
3.2. Common abnormal effects
3.2.1. Dysphagia
3.2.2. GERD
3.2.3. Dry mouth Xerostomia
3.2.4. Peptic Ulcer disease
3.2.5. Cancer
3.2.5.1. Colorectal Cancer
3.2.5.2. Cancer of the stomach
3.2.6. Bowel Incontinence
3.2.7. Fecal Impaction
4. Reproductive System
4.1. Normal effects of aging
4.1.1. Menopause
4.1.1.1. Vaginal epithelium thins
4.1.1.2. cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes atrophy
4.1.1.3. vaginal canal changes
4.1.1.3.1. less lubrication prodced
4.1.1.3.2. shortening and narrowing of the canal
4.1.1.4. Breasts sag and are less firm
4.1.2. Andropause
4.1.2.1. Seminal vesicles develop thinner epithelium
4.1.2.2. Muscle tissue replaced with connective tissue
4.1.2.3. Decreased capacity to retain fluids
4.1.2.4. Seminiferous tubule changes
4.1.2.4.1. ‣ Increased fibrosis, epithelium thinning,
4.1.2.4.2. thickening of the basement membrane,
4.1.2.4.3. narrowing of the lumen
4.1.2.5. Atrophy of the testes and reduction in testicular mass
4.1.2.6. Ejaculation fluid contains less live sperm
4.1.2.7. More time required to achieve an erection
4.1.2.8. Enlargement of the prostate gland
4.2. Common abnormal effects
4.2.1. Male
4.2.1.1. Prostate Cancer
4.2.1.2. Erectile dysfunction
4.2.1.3. Benign Prostatic Hyerplasia
4.2.2. Female
4.2.2.1. Cervical Cancer
4.2.2.2. Breast Cancer
4.2.2.3. Ovarian Cancer
4.2.2.4. Atrophic Vaginitis
5. Neurological
5.1. Normal effects from aging
5.1.1. loss of nerve cell mass causes some atrophy of the brain and spinal cord. which slows response and reaction times
5.1.2. Intellectual performance is maintained with a slowing in processing times around age 80
5.1.3. After 70 verbal skills show a gradual reduction.
5.2. common abnormal effects
5.2.1. Parkison's disease occurs when neurons that produce dopamine in the substantia nigra die or become impaired.
5.2.1.1. Dyskinesia - tremors
5.2.1.2. Muscle rigidity and weakness
5.2.1.3. dysphagia
5.2.2. Alzheimer's Disease
5.2.3. Transiet Ischemic Attacks
5.2.4. Cerebrovascular Accident
6. Muskuloskeletal
6.1. Normal effects of aging
6.1.1. Decline in size and number of muscle fibers, and reduction in muscle mass
6.1.1.1. ‣ Decreased body strength
6.1.1.2. ‣ Endurance declines
6.1.2. Connective tissue changes
6.1.2.1. ‣ Reduced flexibility of joints and muscles
6.1.3. Sarcopenia
6.1.3.1. ‣ Age-related reduction of muscle mass or function resulting from a reduction in protein synthesis and an increase in muscle protein degeneration
6.1.3.1.1. ๏ Can lead to disability
6.2. Common abnormal effects
6.2.1. Osteoporosis
6.2.2. Rheumatoid Arthritis
6.2.3. Fractures
6.2.3.1. Brittle bones fracture more easily and heal at a slower rate
6.2.3.2. Potential for complications associated with immobility
6.2.4. Osteoarthritis
7. Endocrine
7.1. Normal effects of aging
7.1.1. Thyroid gland atrophies
7.1.2. diminished adrenal function
7.1.3. ACTH secretion decreases
7.1.4. Insufficient release of insulin and reduced tissue sensitivity to circulating insulin
7.2. Common abnormal effects
7.2.1. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
7.2.1.1. Neuropathies
7.2.1.2. Retinopathy
7.2.1.3. Coronary artery disease
7.2.1.4. Urinary tract infections
7.2.2. Hypothyroidism
7.2.3. Pancreatic Cancer
8. Integumentary
8.1. Normal effects of aging
8.1.1. Flattening of the dermal‒epidermal junction
8.1.2. Reduced thickness and vascularity of the dermis
8.1.3. Reduction of epidermal turnover
8.1.4. Degeneration of elastic fibers
8.1.5. Increased coarseness of collagen
8.1.6. Reduction in melanocytes
8.1.7. Atrophy of hair bulbs and decline in the rate of hair and nail growth
8.1.8. Increased fragility of the skin
8.1.9. Changes potentially affecting body image, self-concept, reactions from others, socialization, and other psychosocial factors
8.2. Common abnormal effects
8.2.1. Pruritus
8.2.2. Skin Cancer
8.2.3. Stasis Dermatitis
8.2.4. Pressure Ulcers
9. Respiratory
9.1. Normal effects of aging
9.1.1. Changes occur in upper airway paths, nose, and trachea
9.1.2. Reduce cough
9.1.3. Lungs reduce in size and weight
9.1.4. Decreased elastic recoil
9.1.5. Alveoli less elastic
9.1.6. Reduction in vital capacity; increase residual volume
9.1.7. Loose or brittle teeth can be aspired
9.2. Common abnormal effects
9.2.1. Asthma
9.2.2. Chronic bronchitis
9.2.2.1. Causes persistent, productive cough; wheezing; recurrent respiratory infections; shortness of breath
9.2.3. Emphysema
9.2.4. Lung cancer
9.2.5. Pnuemonia
10. Cardiovascular
10.1. Normal effects of aging
10.1.1. Heart valves become thicker and rigid
10.1.2. Aorta becomes dialted
10.1.2.1. sligth ventricular hypertrophy
10.1.2.2. Thickening of left ventricular wall
10.1.3. Myocardial muscle less efficient
10.1.3.1. decreased Cardiac output
10.1.3.2. decreased contractile strength
10.1.4. Calcification, reduced elasticity of vessels
10.1.5. Less sensitive to baroreceptor regulation of blood pressure
10.2. Common abnormal effects
10.2.1. Hypertension
10.2.2. Congestive Heart failure CHF
10.2.2.1. Incidence increases with age
10.2.2.2. Leading cause of hospitalization
10.2.2.3. Complication of arteriosclerotic heart disease
10.2.2.4. Coronary artery disease responsible for most
10.2.3. Coronary artery disease
10.2.3.1. Ischemic heart disease
10.2.3.2. Prevalence increase with age
10.2.3.3. Angina
10.2.3.4. ‣ Atypical presentation: coughing, syncope, sweating, and confusion
10.2.3.5. ‣ Nitroglycerin effective
10.2.3.6. ‣ Education
10.2.3.7. Myocardial infarction
10.2.4. hyperlipidemia
10.2.5. Arrhythmias
10.2.6. Peripheral vascular disease
10.2.6.1. Arteriosclerosis: common especially among those with diabetes
10.2.6.2. Affects smaller vessels furthest from heart
11. Renal
11.1. Normal effects of aging
11.1.1. Hypertrophy and thickening of the bladder muscle
11.1.1.1. o Decreases bladder ability to expand
11.1.1.2. o Reduces storage capacity
11.1.1.2.1. Daytime urinary frequency
11.1.1.2.2. Nocturia
11.1.2. Changes in cortical control of micturition
11.1.2.1. o Nocturia
11.1.3. Inefficient neurological control of bladder emptying and weaker bladder muscle
11.1.3.1. o Retention of large volumes of urine
11.1.3.1.1. Female: fecal impaction
11.1.3.1.2. Male: prostatic hypertrophy
11.1.4. Kidney filtration ability decreases
11.1.4.1. o Affects the ability to eliminate drugs
11.1.4.1.1. Potential for adverse drug reactions
11.1.5. Reduced renal function
11.1.5.1. o High blood urea nitrogen levels
11.1.6. Decreased tubular function
11.1.6.1. o Concentration of urine changes in response to water and/or sodium excess/depletion
11.1.7. Increase in renal threshold for glucose
11.1.7.1. o False-negative results for glucose in the urine without symptoms
11.2. Common abnormal effects
11.2.1. Urinary incontinence
11.2.2. Bladder Caner
11.2.3. Renal Caliculi
11.2.4. Glomerulonephritis