1. 3. The Hague System
1.1. 1889 Peace Conference: Tsar Nicholas II, conference on problems of the world peace and disarmament. (Set a limit on the increase of arms and discuss how to prevent armed conflicts + arbitration and meditation)
1.1.1. 8 points, NGOs representatives, women organizations lobbied for the first time
1.1.2. Three declaration prohibiting bombardments from balloons, poison gases, dum dum bullets, two conventions law of war (Geneva Convention ratification)
1.1.3. Creation of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (1900) By the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
1.1.3.1. LA entered in bloc
1.1.3.2. Disputes about treaties had to be referred to the court - 120 treaties had that clause
1.1.3.3. WWI caused a collapse fo the system and damaged the credibility
1.2. 1907 Peace Conference: U.S President Theodore Roosevelt (pacifist movements) the mandatory use of the court was rejected, another conference was scheduled for 1914
2. 4. International Public Unions
2.1. Stimulated by technological development and growing economic interdependence
2.1.1. The extreme mobility of goods across political frontiers remained a characteristic of the international economy until 1914. ‘Politically, Europe was more than ever nationalistic; but economic activity, under general liberal conditions in which business was supposed to be free from the political state, remained predominantly international and globe-encircling.
2.1.2. As a result of international investments and financial affairs related to British industrial expansion, London became the centre of the global economic and financial system.
2.1.2.1. Intl. Railways Associations, Intl. Telegraph Union, Intl. Union of Industrial Property
3. 5 Pan American IOS before WWI
3.1. Need to standardize, harmonize and uniform technical aspects in order to favour trade, transportation, communication. / American body exclusive for American Republics, one single major power, one single body Int Union of American States
3.1.1. Promote the liberalization of trade , but then extended to health, professional qualifications, patents...
3.1.1.1. Instrument of US Hegemony: (I) Monroe Doctrine, (II) Roosevelt Corollary (III) Dollar Diplomacy
4. 7. The League of Nations
4.1. 1920 to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security (62 members) three organs: Assembly, the Council and the permanent Secretariat + thematic commissions (UK)
4.1.1. The Permanent Mandates Commission (system of mandates A-B-C) - To prepare international conferences, to administer internationalized territories or cities
4.1.1.1. A: covered Ottoman Empire B: regions in east Africa (previous belonged to Germany) C: South East Africa. The mandate holders reported annually to the LoN
4.2. Basic principles: 1. Collective security 2. judicial solutions to international disputes (Permanent Court of Justice) 3. Disarmament/armaments control 4. Cooperation in labour and social matters
4.2.1. PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE: established on Art 14 of the Covenant. The purpose was to administer justice and develop jurisprudence (1922 - 1939 66 cases). The main sources were the general principles of international law, the existence of the Court prompted the need for codification of international law. (ILO opinion on the conditions of agricultural workers)
4.2.1.1. The Court became paralysed by the Second World War, and was abolished at the same time as the League of Nations on 18 April 1946. On the same day it was succeeded by the International Court of Justice in The Hague. (Overlap with the Permanent Court of Arbitration that focused on the application of specific treaties)
4.3. The political work of the League 1920’s: Disputed territories and cities. Corfu Crisis 1923 (murder Italian diplomat while defining the Greek - Albanian border) Italy occupies the Island and demands reparations.
4.3.1. Refugees: Nansen High Commissioner (1920) to address the problems of Russian refugees (Later Greek, Armenian and Bulgarian) Nansen Passport 1931 - High Commissioner for Refugees from Germany (1933) (Nuremberg Decrees 1935)
4.3.2. LoN was able to deal just with small issues that do not involve interest of the majors powers. When such interest were in play the league was not able to take decisions against the members
4.4. Disarmament : LoN Art 8. The maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments. 1. Washington Naval Conference (1921) 2. The London Naval Conference (1930) LoN framework: The treaty of mutual assistance (1923) 3. Geneva Protocol (1924) 4. The Geneva Poison Gas Protocol (1925) 5. The Kellogg - Briand Pact (1928). 6. The Lausanne Conference (1932)
4.4.1. Despite the failures there were two positive developments. Due to the efforts of the LoN disarmament had become a permanent fixture in the public debate and the experience of the negotiations had shown that they were a learning process that required time.
4.4.1.1. The League of Nations can thus be seen as an valuable learning experience on negotiating bodies and procedures.
4.5. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION: Body of standard setting international conventions and recommendations and monitoring the implementation
4.5.1. Tripartite decision making structure allowed trade unions and employers equally strong to governments (social stability however interest were diverse and was hard find common topics, different national realities)
5. The creation of the UN System
5.1. 1. The Declaration of Moscow 1943, 2. Teheran 1943, 3. The Conference at Dumbarton Oaks 1944, 4. Yalta Conference 1945, 5. The UN Conference on International Organization SF 1945
5.1.1. CONFERENCES: 1942 The Declaration by the United Nations. 1943 The Conference on Food and Agriculture in Hot Springs, 1943 Relief for Refugees and Displaced Persons UNRRA, 1944 International Labour Conference in Philadelphia, 1994 Bretton Wood Conference on International Monetary Policy
6. 1. The Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815 (worked until WWI)
6.1. Balance of Power + cooperation for security and stability + great 5 powers = CONCERT OF EUROPE
6.1.1. Austria, Prussia and Russia (Holly Alliance against revolution, liberalism, democracy) UK (reestablish balance of power, expand british hegemony -trade)
6.1.1.1. Neutralization: some countries can not be militarized by the Great Powers (Sw and Lx) Internationalization: the administration is given to an international body
6.1.2. Favoured the preservation of the Status Quo. The great powers right to intervene and impose collective will on states threatened by internal rebellion
6.1.3. The conferences lend themselves to discussing and establishing relations among states, to correcting violation of agreements and to the further specification of those agreements
6.1.3.1. Major issues discussed: Eastern question, changes in the Vienna set up, Colonization
6.1.4. 4 Phases
6.2. SEASON OF CONGRESS
6.2.1. Congress of Troppau (1820) meeting of the Holy Alliance to intervene in Naples democratic revolution - UK, France against protocol
6.2.2. Congress of Vienna (1814) Declaration on the abolition of slavery, Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine, Reorganization of the map
6.2.2.1. Joint toll system, police administration, a common authority to police the river, prevent fraud and smuggling, repare the riverbed
6.2.2.2. made provisions to secure the freedom of navigation on the Rhine and other international rivers by creating a form of international authority in order to remove obstacles (innocent passage)
6.2.3. Congress of Aachen (1818) France is admitted to the quintuple alliance after payments and reparations.
6.2.4. Congress of Laibach (1821) Holy Alliance, the congress proclaimed its hostility to revolutionary regimes, authorized Austrian army to restore the absolutist monarchy
6.2.5. Congress of Verona (1822) UK supports LA and Greece independence. Reviews the revolutionary situation in Spain
7. 2. The Concert of Europe 1822 - 1914 diplomatic method - collective security regime
7.1. Legal Instruments: + neutralization (Switzerland, Belgium, Luxembourg) + internationalization (given to an international body)
7.1.1. Major Issues: Changes in the Vienna set up, the Eastern Question (desintegration of the Ottoman Empire, control territories/increased power) Issues with industrialization and colonization
7.2. 1853 - 1871
7.2.1. 1853 Crimean war
7.2.1.1. CONGRESS OF PARIS 1856 guaranteed the integrity of Ottoman Turkey and obligated Russia to surrender, the black sea was neutralized, and the Danube River opened to the shipping of all nations
7.2.1.1.1. CONGRESS OF BERLIN 1878: about the eastern question and review the San Stefano Treaty to limit Russia interest to extend its naval powers
7.2.2. 1859 France vs Austria led to the Italian reunification
7.2.2.1. From 1867 Italy is admitted as the 6th member of the Concert
7.2.3. 1864 Prussia vs Denmark
7.2.4. 1866 Prussia vs Austria
7.2.5. 1870 Prussia vs France
7.2.5.1. 1871 led to the German unification
8. 6. The U.S and WWI:
8.1. 1914: 1917 Neutrality due the widespread pacifism of the US population. 1917 Peace without victory speech (return to the previous situation, and the creation of an International organization)
8.1.1. 1919 US enter the war: 1. German submarine war, 2. Germany - Mexico 3. Ensure repayment to US banks 4. Avoid German hegemony that affects economic interests 5. Interest in participating in the reconstruction of the economic system post war.
8.1.1.1. 14. Points 1. end secret diplomacy, 2 and 3, free trade and free navigation worldwide, 4. disarmament, armament reduction, 5. self determination of peoples, 14. creation of a League of nations
8.1.1.1.1. Why self determination? The price empires payed for US help during the war. With the dissolution of the empires US could deal with the colonies directly, this represent and advantage for US economy and trade
8.1.1.2. Slogan of US entering the WWI: we enter this war with the aim to make the world safe for democracy (Russia October Revolution, Bolchevique State and the Soviet Union)
8.1.2. Wilsons 14 points as a manifesto of the American vision of the world opposed to the traditional, conservative and elitist Europe and revolutionary Soviet Russia
8.1.2.1. Not only be a balance of power, but also ‘a community of power; not organized rivalries, but an organized common peace’
8.1.2.2. A new diplomacy based on equal rights between states, on governments that had the approval of their citizens, on the freedom of the seas and on equal weaponry as part of a jointly enforced peace
8.1.2.3. Involvement in the war with the need to make the world a safe place for democracy
9. 8. Interwar years peace:
9.1. LoN most serious failures are the invasions of Manchuria by Japan in 1931 and Ethiopia by Italy 1934, and Poland by Germany and Finland by the Soviet Union in 1939.
9.1.1. The last meeting of the LoN is convened in December 1939 after the Soviet aggression to Finland: USSR is expelled by the League. LoN formally exists until 1946.
9.1.2. Weaknesses: 1.Overlapping of duties between the two main organs; 2.The difficulty to reach unanimous vote 3. The non-universality of membership and absence of major powers (US, Germany, USSR)