1. PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (p 104)
1.1. CONSTRUCTIVISM
1.1.1. Believing that knowledge acquisition is a process of construction rather than duplication (creating a mental copy of what is observed)
1.2. ASSIMILATION and ACCOMODATION
1.3. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS) (p.105)
1.3.1. Children become capable of/ develop
1.3.1.1. Symbolic thought
1.3.1.2. Deferred learning
1.3.1.3. Object permanence
1.3.1.4. A-not-B-error
1.3.2. Sub-stages of Piaget's sensorimotor stage development (p. 107)
1.4. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (ABOUT AGES 2 TO 7) (p.106)
1.4.1. Cognitive deficits
1.4.1.1. Animis
1.4.1.2. Lack of hierarchical classification
1.4.1.3. Egocentrism
1.4.1.3.1. Collective monologues = children appear to be conversing with each other, but are really not addressing thought or adapting speech to their conversation partners
1.4.1.4. Lack of conservation
1.4.1.4.1. Centre (or centration): the child focuses on one aspect of a task to the exclusion of other aspects
1.4.1.4.2. Decentre (or decentretion): Ability to think about multiple aspects of a task simultaneously
1.4.1.4.3. Reverse operations: Ability to mentally reverse or negate an operation
1.5. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (ABOUT AGES 7 TO 11) (p.109)
1.5.1. Children are able to complete drawing of water in a bottle or mountain with trees/people/ house
1.6. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (ABOUT AGE 12 AND OLDER) (p. 111)
2. Advances in knowledge since Piaget
2.1. Underestimation and overestimation of abilities (pp. 113-115)
2.1.1. ~Some toddlers are non egocentric and able to anticipate other's perspectives; ~Some young children often show good reasoning abilities; ~Adolescent can be egocentric/ collective monologue
2.2. Primacy of language (p.115)
2.2.1. When children began to learn language they pay more attention to context than to words
2.2.2. The language-learning chid gradually moves from understanding words in conjunction with actions to understanding words in isolation
2.2.3. You know the your learners have primacy of language when they correct your language inaccuracies
3. Diversity in cognitive developmental theory (p. 116)
3.1. Piaget paid little attention to individual differences. Did not investigate whether some children achieved a stage earlier than other children. Also believed the stages of cognitive development are the same across cultures.
3.1.1. Despite his work have been criticised and he may have been wrong about few things we stay hime because: 1. His theory is a good starting point for scientists 2. Piaget's theory continues to be widely applied in education. How? See next point!
4. Learning and teaching implications of cognitive developmental theory (p. 116)
4.1. Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) (p. 117)
4.1.1. 1. Know children well, including significant adult, so that you can scaffold their learning 2.Make instructions appropriate to children's age and developmental level 3. Base practices on research about how children learn and develop 4. use practices the are likely to reduce the achievement gap
4.2. Constructivist teaching (p. 117)
4.2.1. Piaget asserted that learners CONSTRUCT their own knowledge and should be encouraged to do so. Each time one prematurely teaches a child something he could have discover for himself, tat child is kept from investigating it and consequently from understanding it completely. When children act on their own they form permanent mental models: when they are told fact, they may just memorise them in a superficial way. From this theory of learning, instruction have been developed -> CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTION
4.2.1.1. OUTCOMES OF EFFECTIVE CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTION: 1. Deeper conceptual understanding 2. Greater interest and positive attitude towards the topic 3. Reduced labelling by students that other students are smart or dumb 4. Increased perceptions that learners are responsible for and have some control over their own learning and have some co
5. Diversity in sociocultural theory
5.1. What a child learns is determined by the culture in which the child lives. Children learn what is valued in their culture. How child learns and the scaffolding the child receives is also influenced by culture.
5.2. Cultural tools = concrete objects and symbolic tools that allow members of a culture to think, build. record, problem solve and communicate
5.3. Writing is a key cultural tool. So are genres or types of writing. Written language is a school-learned cultural tool that transfers widely across many different contexts because it is seen in many contexts, not just school. I you want your learners to transfer the use of a cultural tool from one context to the another, you will need to help them see how the tool is used in other settings
6. NOTE OF CAUTION ABOUT CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTION
6.1. A constructivist teacher helps learners make sense of the incoming information, organise it coherent, and integrate it with previous knowledge
6.2. CHILDREN LEARN BY THINKING. It is cognitive activity that matters not behavioural
7. BANDURA - SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (pp. 128-29)
7.1. VICAROUS INFORCEMENT
7.2. SELF-EFFICIENCY
8. BEHAVIOURISM
8.1. Conditioning
8.1.1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV) (p.96)
8.1.1.1. Dog example = Bell, associated to meat powder, becomes conditioned stimulus (CS) -> Salivation at hearing bell becomes conditioned response
8.1.1.2. Extinction = Behaviour can be unlearnt
8.1.1.2.1. How? Repeatedly providing the CS (bell) without the UCS (food) until the CS (bell) no longer elicits conditioned response (salivation)
8.1.2. OPERANT CONDITIONING
8.1.2.1. Reinforcement and punishment (pp. 97-98)
8.1.2.1.1. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT vs PUNISHMENT
8.1.2.2. Praise (pp. 98-99)
8.1.2.2.1. -Dweck noticed that praise can promote students motivation, support their learning endeavour and encourage effort and resilience + reduce disruptive behaviours. -Brophy : effective praise need to be: specific, contingent and sincere
8.1.2.3. Shaping (p. 100)
8.1.2.3.1. If a learner veer displays a target behaviour, you cannot reinforce it and so you use a technique called shaping
8.1.2.4. Stability and extinction (p. 100)
8.1.2.4.1. Behaviour tend to be stable as long as the system of reinforcement remains stable. To teach behaviour -> continuous reinforcement To maintain behaviour -> intermittent reinforcement
8.1.2.4.2. Extinction = the elimination or decline in response caused by stopping reinforcement
8.2. Learning = a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience
8.3. Focus on automatic or involuntary behaviours
9. Learning and teaching implications of behaviourism
9.1. OPERANT CONDITIONING IN LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (p. 101)
9.1.1. Has been effectively used too improve student's ATTENTION, ability to complete ASSIGNMENTS and to STUDY
9.1.1.1. GUIDELINES TO APPLY BEHAVIOURISM: ~Figure out what learners find reinforcing ~Marks are one of the key consequences that teachers control ~Focus on reinforcement rather than punishment ~Intentionally condition positive behaviours in learners (do not mistake) ~Shape learners behaviour when teaching complex skills ~Use material reward with care
9.1.2. Behaviour modification or applied behaviour analysis
9.1.2.1. Very commonly applied in the treatment of learners with autism, ADHD and intellectual disabilities
9.2. DIRECT INSTRUCTION (pp. 102-103)
9.2.1. FIRST TYPE = teacher follows general format: 1. Begin lesson with a short statement of goals 2. Begin with short review pf previous, prerequisite learning 3. Present new material in small steps (with practice after each step) 4. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations 5. Ask a large number of questions to check understanding 6. Provide systematic feedback and corrections 7 Obtain success rate of 80% or higher
9.2.2. SECOND TYPE: uses commercially prepared scripts. DI curricula where teacher are provided with the exact wording to use when reaching
10. VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY (p.119)
10.1. Interaction with other is the primary force driving cognitive development
10.2. THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION (pp. 119,120)
10.2.1. "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological), and then inside the child (intrapsychological)" (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57)
10.2.2. Initially just observing the expert; next, the expert does most of the work (both cognitive and physical) while guiding the learner through the task; as the learner gains increased competence, the expert gives more and more of the responsibilities to the learner (who grows expertise); the expert support is reduce; the expert may still need to five hints and reminders for a time until at last, the learner can perform the task independently.
10.3. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
10.3.1. Teaching children in they ZPD, which challenges them, promotes growth
10.4. SCAFFOLDING
10.4.1. Inquiry approach bids students to ask questions, collect and analyse data, and develop explanations for patterns in the data. Just turning students loose to discover for themselves does not work well
10.5. LANGUAGE AND PRIVATE SPEECH
10.5.1. Private speech = taking to oneself out loud, partially out loud, or silently in one's mind to help regulate one's own behaviour or solve problems
10.5.1.1. More likely to use it when: 1. engaged in goal-directed activities 2. their task is challenging 3. an adult is aiding their problem solving 4. they are alone rather than with someone
10.6. AGE TRENDS IN SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
10.6.1. The only aspect of Vygotsky's theory that does show age trends is private speech. ~Out-loud talk increases during the preschool period; ~Private speech becomes more internal as children progresses from preschool through the school years; ~however, adolescents, and even adults, revert to out-loud private speech as they attempt to solve problems or do difficult tasks
11. Learning and teaching implications of sociocultural theory
11.1. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
11.1.1. SCAFFOLDING IN THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
11.1.1.1. One scaffolding technique is to break task into smaller units
11.1.1.2. Scaffolding can be direct or indirect
11.1.1.3. Teachers did not tell learners how to do the problem, but asked questions and gave hints until the learners understood what was being taught
11.1.2. DISCUSSION IN THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
11.1.2.1. When learners explain their thinking aloud, they may notice their errors and correct them
11.1.2.2. Learner-to-learner commentary should be very present in constructivist learning environments
11.1.2.3. Teach learners to discuss respectfully so they will be more motivated in engage in discussions (without feeling ashamed if they are wrong)
11.1.2.4. Children are given the opportunity to work together so that they will be confronted in different ways (learner. of differing levels of ability are placed together. Advanced students clarify their knowledge by having to explain etc.
11.1.3. RECIPROCAL TEACHING
11.2. Four general implications of Vygotsky perspective
11.2.1. 1. USE LANGUAGE AS A TOOL to help learners organise their thoughts and consolidate memories (private speech)
11.2.2. 2. TEACH LEARNERS IN THEIR ZPD, USING APPROPRIATE SCAFFOLDING
11.2.3. 3. HELP LEARNERS ACTIVELY OBSERVE AND PARTICIPATE IN ACTIVITIES WITH ADULTS AND PEERS THROUGH APPRENTICESHIP AND GUIDED PARTICIPATION
11.2.3.1. Apprenticeship
11.2.3.2. Guided learning
11.2.4. 4. WORK TOGETHER as a COMMUNITY OF LEARNERS in which everyone contributes to the learning process. A community of learners experiences DISTRIBUTED COGNITION in which thinking and knowledge exist not only in the minds of individuals, but also in their social interaction and the artefacts that they use and create, like books and computers.