Science

1. U1 M2 L2

1.1. Vocabulary

1.1.1. Chemical Changes

1.1.1.1. Matter changes into another substance with different chemical and physical properties Signs of change: color, odor, energy.

1.1.2. Chemical Reactions

1.1.2.1. Old bonds breaking and new bonds forming when two or more substances react together.

1.1.3. Chemical Equations

1.1.3.1. Chemical Equation - One way to model chemical changes Reactants - The starting substances of what goes into a chemical reaction Products - The substances that come out of the chemical reaction Coefficient - Number placed in front of an element symbol or chemical formula in an equation

1.1.4. Products

1.1.4.1. The species formed from chemical reactions.

1.1.5. Reactants

1.1.5.1. Something that undergoes change.

1.1.6. Coefficients

1.1.6.1. Used to balance chemical equations.

1.1.7. Antoine Lavoisier

1.1.7.1. Scientist in 1743 - 1794 that was able to show mass was conserved in chemical reactions.

1.1.8. Law of conservation of mass

1.1.8.1. in a chemical reaction mass is neither created nor destroyed.

1.1.9. Atomic Mass

1.1.9.1. Something that is represented by a number.

2. U1 M2 L3

2.1. Vocabulary

2.1.1. Chemical Potential Energy

2.1.1.1. Energy released when atoms form bonds. The amount is dependant on the type of the bonds.

2.1.2. Endothermic Reaction

2.1.2.1. Chemical Reactions where more energy is required to break the bonds of the reactants than is released when products form. This is when heat is absorbed, and the product feels cold.

2.1.3. Exothermic Reaction

2.1.3.1. Chemical reaction where more energy is released when the products form than is required to break the bonds in the reactants. Energy is released during a chemical reaction. This is when heat is released, the product feels hot.

2.1.4. Concentration in reactions

2.1.4.1. Increasing the concentration increases the collision of the particles, which will cause a faster reaction rate.

2.1.5. Law of conservation of energy

2.1.5.1. Energy can not be made, only transferred.

3. U2 M1 L1

3.1. Vocabulary

3.1.1. Pangea

3.1.1.1. A supercontinent of all the continents before drifting apart.

3.1.2. Continental Drift

3.1.2.1. The continents move slowly so we don't feel it.

3.1.3. Rock formation evidence

3.1.3.1. Large geologic structures such as mountain ranges were separated as continents drifted apart. Evidence are volcanic rocks showing identical chemistry and age.

3.1.4. Glacial features evidence

3.1.4.1. Glacial groves were found benaeth sediments of different continents.

3.1.5. Coal Deposit evidence

3.1.5.1. Coal was found in Antartica.

3.1.6. Fossil Evidence

3.1.6.1. Fossils from one place were from in another.

3.1.7. Alfred Wegener

3.1.7.1. A scientsit who hyposisized continental drift.

4. U2 M1 L2

4.1. Vocabulary

4.1.1. Ocean Floor topography

4.1.1.1. This is data scientists gathered about the map of the sea floor. This was done using sonar technology.

4.1.2. Mid ocean ridges

4.1.2.1. Vast mountain ranges deep below the ocean's surface

4.1.3. Ocean trenches

4.1.3.1. Deep underwater troughs on the sea floor. The deepest in the world is the Mariana Trench

4.1.4. Isochron Maps

4.1.4.1. Maps that show the age of the ocean floor.

4.1.5. Seafloor spreading

4.1.5.1. The process by which new oceanic crust continuously forms along mid ocean ridges and is destroyed at ocean trenches

4.1.6. Magma

4.1.6.1. Molten rock below Earth’s Surface. It is less dense than the surrounding rocks and rises up.

4.1.7. Lava

4.1.7.1. Magma that has erupted on the surface of Earth.

4.1.8. Plate Tectonics

4.1.8.1. Earth’s surface is made of rigid slabs of rock that move with respect to one another.

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5.1. Vocabulary

5.1.1. Convergent Boundary

5.1.1.1. When two plates move towards each other.

5.1.2. Divergent Boundary

5.1.2.1. When two plates move apart from each other

5.1.3. Transform Boundary

5.1.3.1. When plates slide horizontally past each other

5.1.4. Subduction

5.1.4.1. When the leading edge of a plate is folded upward, such as the Andes.

5.1.5. Fault

5.1.5.1. A break in Earth’s crust along which movement occurs.

5.1.6. Fault Block Mountains

5.1.6.1. Where plates move apart, the tension causes the Earth’s crust to stretch. This can create mountains as the tensions pull the crust apart. An example is the Basin and Range Province where mountains are oriented north to south.

5.1.7. Volcano

5.1.7.1. A vent in Earth’s crust through which molten rock flows

5.1.8. Volcanic Arc

5.1.8.1. Volcanos that emerge as islands that is a curved line parallel to a plate boundary.

5.1.9. Earthquake

5.1.9.1. Rupture and sudden movement along the Earth’s Crust. This is from the buildup and rapid release of stress in the plate boundaries.

5.1.10. Fault Zone

5.1.10.1. Area of many large fractured pieces of crust along a large fault, such as the San Andreas fault.

5.1.11. Landslide

5.1.11.1. Rapid downhill movement of soil, loose rocks, and boulders.

5.1.12. Tsunami

5.1.12.1. A wave that forms when an ocean disturbance suddenly moves a large volume of water.

5.1.13. Impact Crater

5.1.13.1. Meteoroids from space strike the Earth’s surface leaving behind large impressions.

6. U2 M1 L5

6.1. Rock

6.1.1. the solid mineral material forming part of the surface of the earth and other similar planets, exposed on the surface or underlying the soil or oceans.

6.2. Mineral

6.2.1. a solid inorganic substance of natural occurrence.

6.3. Crystallization

6.3.1. the process of forming crystals.

6.4. Igneous extrusive rock

6.4.1. Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very near) the Earth's surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing fissures.

6.5. Igneous intrusive rock

6.5.1. Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth. Great globs of molten rock rise toward the surface.

6.6. Sedimentary rock

6.6.1. Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding.

6.7. Lithification

6.7.1. the consolidation of a loosely deposited sediment into a hard sedimentary rock

6.8. Compaction

6.8.1. the exertion of force on something so that it becomes more dense.

6.9. Cementation

6.9.1. the binding together of particles or other things by cement.

6.10. Metamorphic rock

6.10.1. Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors.

7. U2 M2 L2

7.1. Vocabulary

7.1.1. Volcano Belts

7.1.1.1. Volcanic belts are found above zones of unusually high temperature (700 to 1,400 °C (1,292 to 2,552 °F)) where magma is created by partial melting of solid material in the Earth's crust and upper mantle. These areas usually form along tectonic plate boundaries at depths of 10 to 50 kilometres (6.2 to 31.1 mi).

7.1.2. Hot Spots

7.1.2.1. a small area or region with a relatively hot temperature in comparison to its surroundings.

7.1.3. Mudflows

7.1.3.1. a fluid or hardened stream or avalanche of mud.

7.1.4. Lava flows

7.1.4.1. Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an erupting vent. Lava is erupted during either nonexplosive activity or explosive lava fountains.

7.1.5. Volcanic Ash

7.1.5.1. Volcanic ash is a mixture of rock, mineral, and glass particles expelled from a volcano during a volcanic eruption.

7.1.6. Volcanic Gases

7.1.6.1. Definition. The term “volcanic gas” identifies the fluid gas phase released by active volcanoes, both during eruption and quiescence. Compositionally, volcanic gases are molecular combinations of four major elements (H, C, O, and S) but also include a variety of minor (Cl, F, N, He, Ne, and Ar) to trace components.

7.1.7. Pyroclastic Flows

7.1.7.1. A pyroclastic flow is a hot (typically >800 °C, or >1,500 °F ), chaotic mixture of rock fragments, gas, and ash that travels rapidly (tens of meters per second) away from a volcanic vent or collapsing flow front. Pyroclastic flows can be extremely destructive and deadly because of their high temperature and mobility.

7.1.8. Predicting volcanoes - Gas

7.1.8.1. Gases, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and even water vapor, can be measured at the site or, in some cases, from a distance using satellites. Then, the amounts of gases and their ratios are calculated to help predict eruptions. (Volcanoes | Earth Science, n.d.)

7.1.9. Predicting volcanoes - Deformation

7.1.9.1. Deformation is a term used to describe changes in the shape of the surface of a volcanic landscape. Together with monitoring earthquakes (seismicity) and gas emissions, deformation can be an important indication of an approaching eruption.

7.1.10. Predicting volcanoes - Ground Vibration

7.1.10.1. Ground deformation measurements provide an important indicator about what is happening beneath a volcano. As magma accumulates in an underground reservoir before an eruption, the ground surface typically swells (named inflation).

7.1.11. Predicting volcanoes - Remote Sensing

7.1.11.1. In a broad sense, the remote sensing of volcanoes means measuring volcanic activity without the need for in situ observations and so also includes data and observations from seismological and global positioning system (GPS) networks.

7.1.12. Predicting volcanoes - Lava Collection

7.1.12.1. An increase in the frequency and intensity of felt earthquakes. Noticeable steaming or fumarolic activity and new or enlarged areas of hot ground. Subtle swelling of the ground surface. Small changes in heat flow.

8. U3 M1 L1

8.1. Vocabulary

8.1.1. Natural resource

8.1.1.1. Natural resources are materials from the Earth that are used to support life and meet people's needs. Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural resource. Oil, coal, natural gas, metals, stone and sand are natural resources. Other natural resources are air, sunlight, soil and water.

8.1.2. Ores

8.1.2.1. a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable mineral can be profitably extracted.

8.1.3. Renewable Resources

8.1.3.1. A renewable resource is a resource of which there is an endless supply because it can be replenished. The sun, the wind, and geothermal heat are considered inexhaustible and therefore are examples of renewable resources. Water is also considered a renewable natural resource, as long as there is precipitation.

8.1.4. Nonrenewable resources

8.1.4.1. Nonrenewable energy resources include coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear energy. Once these resources are used up, they cannot be replaced, which is a major problem for humanity as we are currently dependent on them to supply most of our energy needs.

9. U3 M1 L3

9.1. Vocabulary

9.1.1. Mining

9.1.1.1. the process of extracting useful materials from the earth.

9.1.2. Dwindling Deposits

9.1.2.1. Declines were mostly driven by uninsured deposits, or those exceeding the FDIC's $250,000 insurable limit. The results point to a banking industry that's still reeling from turmoil earlier this year, but is less exposed to some of the riskiest deposits.

9.1.3. Mineral Supplies

9.1.3.1. Mineral fuels, mineral oils and products of their distillation, Ores, slag and ash, and Salt, sulphur, cement, lime, stone, & plaster.

9.1.4. Fossil fuel extraction

9.1.4.1. Today, fossil fuel industries drill or mine for these energy sources, burn them to produce electricity, or refine them for use as fuel for heating or transportation.

9.1.5. Groundwater overdraft

9.1.5.1. occurs where the average annual amount of groundwater extraction exceeds the long-term average annual supply of water to the basin

10. U3 M2 L2

10.1. Vocabulary

10.1.1. Natural Resource Availability

10.1.1.1. Resource availability refers to the accessibility and abundance of resources in a given area or context. It encompasses both renewable and non-renewable resources, including natural, human, and capital resources. The availability of resources directly impacts economic growth, societal well-being, and environmental sustainability.

10.1.2. Synthetic Material Production

10.1.2.1. There are many types of synthetic fabrics, and they all have a common beginning: Each fiber begins as a fossil-fuel-based polymer solution. Polymers are long chainsof smaller molecules.

10.1.3. Individual and Societal impacts

10.1.3.1. Social enterprises can create social impacts in any way they can through the 17 Social Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations.

10.1.4. By-products

10.1.4.1. something produced in a usually industrial or biological process in addition to the principal product

11. U4 M1 L2

11.1. Vocabulary

11.1.1. Producers

11.1.1.1. A producer is an organism that creates its own food or energy. A consumer is an organism that gets its energy by eating plants or animals. Producers, also called autotrophs, include plants, bacteria, and algae. Plants get energy from the sun and turn it into food, a sugar called glucose.

11.1.2. Consumers

11.1.2.1. Consumers can be either an individual or group of people who purchase or use goods and services solely for personal use, and not for manufacturing or resale. They are the end-users in the sales distribution chain.

11.1.3. Primary Consumer

11.1.3.1. The organisms that eat the producers are the primary consumers. They tend to be small in size and there are many of them. The primary consumers are herbivores (vegetarians). The organisms that eat the primary consumers are meat eaters (carnivores) and are called the secondary consumers.

11.1.4. Secondary Consumer

11.1.4.1. We defined secondary consumers as organisms, primarily animals, which eat primary consumers. Furthermore, secondary consumers can be classified into one of two groups: carnivores, or meat eaters, and omnivores, which are plant and meat eaters.

11.1.5. Tertiary Consumer

11.1.5.1. Tertiary consumers are animals that consume other animals to obtain nutrition from them. Most importantly, they are at the highest level of the food chain.

11.1.6. Detritivores

11.1.6.1. an animal which feeds on dead organic material, especially plant detritus.

11.1.7. Food Chain

11.1.7.1. a hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food.

11.1.8. Food Web

11.1.8.1. A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem. Each living thing in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains. Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may take as they move through the ecosystem.

11.1.9. Energy Pyramid / 10 % rule

11.1.9.1. The 10% Rule means that when energy is passed in an ecosystem from one trophic level to the next, only ten percent of the energy will be passed on. An energy pyramid shows the feeding levels of organisms in an ecosystem and gives a visual representation of energy loss at each level.

12. U4 M2 L1

12.1. Vocabulary

12.1.1. Biosphere

12.1.1.1. The biosphere is the region of the earth that encompasses all living organisms: plants, animals and bacteria. It is a feature that distinguishes the earth from the other planets in the solar system.

12.1.2. Biome

12.1.2.1. A biome is an area classified according to the species that live in that location. Temperature range, soil type, and the amount of light and water are unique to a particular place and form the niches for specific species allowing scientists to define the biome.

12.1.3. Ecosystems

12.1.3.1. An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. Environment involves both living organisms and the non-living physical conditions. These two are inseparable but inter-related. The living and physical components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

12.1.4. Communities

12.1.4.1. a group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common.

12.1.5. Populations

12.1.5.1. Population is the term typically used to refer to the number of people in a single area. Governments conduct a census to quantify the size of a resident population within a given jurisdiction.

12.1.6. Organism

12.1.6.1. an individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.

12.1.7. Abiotic

12.1.7.1. physical rather than biological; not derived from living organisms.

12.1.8. Biotic

12.1.8.1. relating to or resulting from living things, especially in their ecological relations.

12.1.9. Limiting Factor

12.1.9.1. A limiting factor is anything that constrains a population's size and slows or stops it from growing. Some examples of limiting factors are biotic, like food, mates, and competition with other organisms for resources.

12.1.10. Biotic Potential

12.1.10.1. Biotic potential is defined as the maximum number of individuals a species can produce (Fig. 8.5). As with other organisms, this is and always has been a survival strategy against food deprivation, predation, and parasitism (Fig. 8.3).

12.1.11. Carrying Capacity

12.1.11.1. the number or quantity of people or things that can be conveyed or held by a vehicle or container.

12.1.12. Overpopulation

12.1.12.1. When we use the term “overpopulation,” we specifically mean a situation in which the Earth cannot regenerate the resources used by the world's population each year. Experts say this has been the case every year since 1970, with each successive year becoming more and more damaging.

12.1.13. Extinction

12.1.13.1. Extinction is the death of all members of a species of plants, animals, or other organisms.

12.1.14. Endangered Species

12.1.14.1. An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, and invasive species.

12.1.15. Threatened species

12.1.15.1. “Threatened” means a species is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future. States have their own ESA-type laws, so species can have different Threatened/Endangered statuses at the federal and state levels. The USGS typically refers to the federal status unless otherwise noted.

13. U4 M2 L3

13.1. Vocabulary

13.1.1. Ecological succession

13.1.1.1. Ecological succession is the process by which the mix of species and habitat in an area changes over time. Gradually, these communities replace one another until a “climax community”—like a mature forest—is reached, or until a disturbance, like a fire, occurs.

13.1.2. Climax Community

13.1.2.1. An ecological community in which populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment. A climax community is the final stage of succession, remaining relatively unchanged until destroyed by an event such as fire or human interference.

13.1.3. Primary succession

13.1.3.1. Primary succession happens when a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time. This can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil.

13.1.4. Secondary succession

13.1.4.1. Secondary succession happens when a climax community or intermediate community is impacted by a disturbance. This restarts the cycle of succession, but not back to the beginning—soil and nutrients are still present.

13.1.5. Eutrophication

13.1.5.1. excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.

13.1.6. Dynamic Equilibrium

13.1.6.1. a state of balance between continuing processes.

13.1.7. Resource Extraction

13.1.7.1. The extraction of resources refers to the withdrawing of materials from the environment for human use, including fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal), rocks and minerals, biomass via deforestation and fishing and hunting, and water.

13.1.8. Pollution

13.1.8.1. the presence in or introduction into the environment of a substance or thing that has harmful or poisonous effects.

13.1.9. Nonnative species

13.1.9.1. 1) non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under consideration and, 2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. Non-native species are plants and animals living in areas where they do not naturally exist.

14. U1 M1 L1

14.1. Vocabulary

14.1.1. Matter

14.1.1.1. Anything that takes up space.

14.1.2. Solid State

14.1.2.1. A solid state has a defined shape and volume.

14.1.3. Liquid State

14.1.3.1. A liquid state has a defined volume, but not a defined shape.

14.1.4. Gas State

14.1.4.1. A gas state has no defined volume or shape.

14.1.5. Kinetic Energy

14.1.5.1. Energy due to motion.

14.1.6. Temperature

14.1.6.1. The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a material.

14.1.7. Thermometer

14.1.7.1. To measure the average kinetic energy or speed of particles in a material a thermometer is used.

14.1.8. Kelvin Scale

14.1.8.1. Made to predict what tempature particles would stop all motion.

14.1.9. Potential Energy

14.1.9.1. It's stored energy.

14.1.10. Thermal Energy

14.1.10.1. The result of the motion of all the particles, and the distance and attractions between those particles in the system.

14.1.11. Atoms

14.1.11.1. A small particle that is the buliding block of matter.

14.1.12. Substances

14.1.12.1. Matter with a composition that is always the same.

14.1.13. Elements

14.1.13.1. A subtance that consists od only one kind of atom.

14.1.14. Compound

14.1.14.1. A subtance containing atoms of two or more different elements chemically bonded together.

14.1.15. Molecule

14.1.15.1. Two or more atoms that are held together by covalent bonds and act as a unit.

14.1.16. Periodic Table of Elements

14.1.16.1. A table used to organize all of the known elements found in the universe.

14.1.17. Element Symbols

14.1.17.1. A symbol used to represent an element. Usually one or two letters for each element. Most of the symbols are in Latin.

14.1.18. Chemical Formula

14.1.18.1. A group of numbers or letters to represent elements.

15. U1 M1 L2

15.1. Vocabulary

15.1.1. Jacques Charles

15.1.1.1. He was a French sciencist who discribed the relationship between temperature and the volume of gas.

15.1.2. Volume Temperature Law

15.1.2.1. The volume of gas increases when the temperature increases. The volume of gas decreases when the temperature decreases.

15.1.3. Thermal Contraction

15.1.3.1. A decrease in volume as its temperature decreases.

15.1.4. Thermal expansion

15.1.4.1. Increase in volume as its temperature increases.

15.1.5. Systems

15.1.5.1. Materials or objects involved in a transfer of energy.

15.1.6. Heating

15.1.6.1. Transfer of thermal energy to a higher region of lower temperature.

15.1.7. Pressure

15.1.7.1. The amount of units applied to an object's surface.

15.1.8. Phase Change

15.1.8.1. The changing from one state of matter to another.

15.1.9. Melting

15.1.9.1. Melting is the process where a solid, ice, turns to a liquid.

15.1.10. Freezing

15.1.10.1. Freezing is the process where a liquid, water, turns to a solid.

15.1.11. Condensation

15.1.11.1. Condensation is the process where a gas turns to a liquid.

15.1.12. Vaporization

15.1.12.1. Vaporization is the process where a liquid, water, turns to a gas.

15.1.13. Boiling vs. Evaporation

15.1.13.1. Boiling makes water heat up and Evaporation makes water disappear over time.

16. U1 M1 L3

16.1. Vocabulary

16.1.1. Robert Boyle

16.1.1.1. Was a British Scientist who discovered the relationship between volume and pressure.

16.1.2. Pressure and Volume - Boyles Law

16.1.2.1. When the lid gets closer to the bottem makes the particles bounce around the container.

16.1.3. Pressure and Number of particles

16.1.3.1. An increase in pressure has an increase in the number of particles. The same goes for the decreasing part.

16.1.4. Pressure and State of Matter

16.1.4.1. The pressure is lower when the air gets removed.

17. U1 M1 L4

17.1. Vocabulary

17.1.1. Molecules

17.1.1.1. Molecules are at least 2 atoms chemical bonded and acts as a unit.

17.1.2. Nonmetal Gases

17.1.2.1. Nonmetal Gases are alway's at room temperature and don't conduct electricity.

17.1.3. Nonmetal Solids

17.1.3.1. Nonmetal Solids are bad at conducting electricity.

17.1.4. Metals

17.1.4.1. They can slide without breaking and are good conductor of electricity.

17.1.5. Ionic Compounds

17.1.5.1. It's where one electron leaves one element to another.

17.1.6. Covalent Compounds

17.1.6.1. They share electrons.

17.1.7. Polar Covalent Compounds

17.1.7.1. They stick together.

17.1.8. Nonpolar Covalent Compounds

17.1.8.1. They are neutral.

17.1.9. Dissolving

17.1.9.1. Nonpolar molecules will dissolve with Polar molecules.

18. U1 M2 L1

18.1. Vocabulary

18.1.1. Qualitative Characteristics

18.1.1.1. Relevance and faithful characteristics.

18.1.2. Quantitative Characteristics

18.1.2.1. Characteristics you can measure.

18.1.3. Mass

18.1.3.1. Amount of matter in a substance.

18.1.4. Weight

18.1.4.1. Weight is not the same as mass. It is directly related to the mass of an object though, and is dependent on the gravitational force that is acting on it. An objects mass is the same on planet Earth and on the moon, but its weight will be different because gravity is different.

18.1.5. Volume

18.1.5.1. This is the amount of space a substance takes up. It is also size dependant. The larger something is, the more volume it takes up. Units for volume are cubic centimeters (cm3) liters (L) and milliliters (mL).

18.1.6. Density

18.1.6.1. The ratio of the amount of mass there is in an object and its volume is called density. It is the mass per unit volume of a substance and is size dependant. Every substance has its own unique density.

18.1.7. Chemical Properties

18.1.7.1. A chemical property is a characteristic of matter that can be observed as it changes from one type of matter to the next. This includes flammability, oxidation, and reactivity

18.1.8. Flammability

18.1.8.1. The ability of a type of matter to burn easily, such as propane. Cooking utensils are made to resist it

18.1.9. Oxidation

18.1.9.1. This is when substances, such as metal react and turn into rust. This is usually indicated with a color change.

18.1.10. Reactivity

18.1.10.1. This is when a substance reacts with another substance to make a new substance. This can be done with acid, which can dissolve.

18.1.11. Solubility

18.1.11.1. How well something will dissolve with another Likes dissolve likes! (Polar with polar, nonpolar with nonpolar)

19. U2 M1 L4

19.1. Vocabulary

19.1.1. Physical Weathering

19.1.1.1. occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as changes in temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain and waves.

19.1.2. Frost Wedging

19.1.2.1. the mechanical disintegration, splitting or break-up of rock by the pressure of water freezing in cracks, crevices, pores, joints or bedding planes.

19.1.3. Plant Action

19.1.3.1. prostrate or semi-erect subshrub of tropical America, and Australia

19.1.4. Abrasion

19.1.4.1. the process of scraping or wearing something away.

19.1.5. Wind Abrasion

19.1.5.1. the process of erosion produced by the suspended particles that impact on solid objects.

19.1.6. Water Abrasion

19.1.6.1. particles in the water collide and bump against one another.

19.1.7. Glacial Abrasion

19.1.7.1. the surface wear achieved by individual clasts, or rocks of various sizes, contained within ice or by subglacial sediment as the glacier slides over bedrock.

19.1.8. Chemical Weathering

19.1.8.1. the erosion or disintegration of rocks, building materials, etc., caused by chemical reactions (chiefly with water and substances dissolved in it) rather than by mechanical processes.

19.1.9. Oxidation

19.1.9.1. the process or result of oxidizing or being oxidized.

19.1.10. Hydrolysis

19.1.10.1. Hydrolysis is an organic chemical reaction that involves adding water to break apart molecules. This reaction is used for both biological and chemical applications. A way to remember the term hydrolysis is to think of 'reaction with water. ' There are three types of hydrolysis reactions: salt, acid, and base reactions.

19.1.11. Carbonation

19.1.11.1. a solution of carbon dioxide gas in water.

19.1.12. Erosion

19.1.12.1. the process of eroding or being eroded by wind, water, or other natural agents.

19.1.13. Deposition

19.1.13.1. the action of deposing someone, especially a monarch.

19.1.14. Small Scale Erosion

19.1.14.1. This erosion process removes the fine soil particles that contain most of the important nutrients and organic matter. Rill erosion—a type of erosion that results in small yet well-defined channels—typically smaller than gully erosion channels

19.1.15. Surface runoff

19.1.15.1. the unconfined flow of water over the ground surface

19.1.16. Coastal Erosion

19.1.16.1. the process by which local sea level rise, strong wave action, and coastal flooding wear down or carry away rocks, soils, and/or sands along the coast.

19.1.17. Large Scale Erosion

19.1.17.1. The ocean is a huge force of erosion. Coastal erosion—the wearing away of rocks, earth, or sand on the beach—can change the shape of entire coastlines. During the process of coastal erosion, waves pound rocks into pebbles and pebbles into sand.

19.1.18. Mass Wasting

19.1.18.1. the movement of rock and soil down slope under the influence of gravity.

19.1.19. Glacial Movement

19.1.19.1. Glacier Bed: Glaciers move by sliding over bedrock or underlying gravel and rock debris. With the increased pressure in the glacier because of the weight, the individual ice grains slide past one another and the ice moves slowly downhill. The sliding of the glacier over its bed is called the basal slip.

20. U2 M2 L1

20.1. Vocabulary

20.1.1. Earthquakes and plate boundaries

20.1.1.1. Earthquakes occur along fault lines, cracks in Earth's crust where tectonic plates meet. They occur where plates are subducting, spreading, slipping, or colliding. As the plates grind together, they get stuck and pressure builds up. Finally, the pressure between the plates is so great that they break loose.

20.1.2. Richter Magnitude scale

20.1.2.1. The Richter scale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake, that is the amount of energy released during an earthquake. The Richter scale doesn't measure quake damage (see: Mercalli Scale) which is dependent on a variety of factors including population at the epicentre, terrain, depth, etc.

20.1.3. Earthquake magnitude scale

20.1.3.1. Magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude 5.3 is a moderate earthquake, and a 6.3 is a strong earthquake. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude as measured on a seismogram.

20.1.4. Moment magnitude scale

20.1.4.1. Moment is a product of the distance a fault moved and the force required to move it. It is derived from modeling recordings of the earthquake at multiple stations. Moment magnitude estimates are about the same as Richter magnitudes for small to large earthquakes.

20.1.5. Modified Mercalli intensity scale

20.1.5.1. The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) estimates the shaking intensity from an earthquake at a specific location by considering its effects on people, objects, and buildings. At high intensities (above MMI 6), earthquake shaking damages buildings.

20.1.6. Pancaking

20.1.6.1. flatten or become flattened.

20.1.7. Liquefaction

20.1.7.1. Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, water-logged sediments at or near the ground surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking. Liquefaction occurring beneath buildings and other structures can cause major damage during earthquakes.

20.1.8. Landslide

20.1.8.1. A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity.

20.1.9. Tsunami

20.1.9.1. Thus, the Japanese word "tsunami", meaning "harbor wave" is the correct, official and all-inclusive term. It has been internationally adopted because it covers all forms of impulsive wave generation.

21. U2 M2 L3

21.1. Vocabulary

21.1.1. Hurricane

21.1.1.1. A hurricane is a tropical storm with winds that have reached a constant speed of 74 miles per hour or more. The eye of a storm is usually 20-30 miles wide and may extend over 400 miles. The dangers of a storm include torrential rains, high winds and storm surges.

21.1.2. Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale

21.1.2.1. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 rating based on a hurricane's sustained wind speed. This scale estimates potential property damage. Hurricanes reaching Category 3 and higher are considered major hurricanes because of their potential for significant loss of life and damage.

21.1.3. Tornado

21.1.3.1. Tornado - A violently rotating column of air touching the ground, usually attached to the base of a thunderstorm.

21.1.4. Enhanced Fujita Damage Intensity scale

21.1.4.1. The EF Scale incorporates 28 damage indicators (DIs) such as building type, structures, and trees. For each damage indicator, there are 8 degrees of damage (DOD) ranging from the beginning of visible damage to complete destruction of the damage indicator. The original F Scale did not take these details into account.

21.1.5. Flood

21.1.5.1. Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break. Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop.

21.1.6. Drought

21.1.6.1. Defining Drought. Drought is generally defined as “a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season or more), resulting in a water shortage.”

21.1.7. Drought hazard - soil erosion

21.1.7.1. Association between drought and soil erosion is quite complex. The action of runoff and wind exacerbates the rate of soil erosion in drought prone areas. Further, drying of soil creates cracks which reduce the moisture and volume of soil.

21.1.8. Drought hazard - wildfires

21.1.8.1. During drought conditions, fuels for wildfire, such as grasses and trees, can dry out and become more flammable. Drought can also increase the probability of ignition and the rate at which fire spreads. Drought can be intensified by unusually warm temperatures.

21.1.9. Drought hazard - decrease in water supply

21.1.9.1. Drought impacts on water utility operations range from loss of water supply to increased costs and reduced revenues. Drought resilience for water utilities includes the ability to respond to immediate water supply threats, as well as considering long-term conditions and planning for permanent solutions.

21.1.10. Drought hazard - agricultural impact

21.1.10.1. As soil moisture decreases, crops desiccate and become more vulnerable to pests. Even short-term drought can cause significant damage to crops, particularly when it occurs during key stages of crop development, such as after planting or during flowering.

21.1.11. Meteorologists

21.1.11.1. Meteorology is the science concerned with the Earth's atmosphere and its physical processes. A meteorologist is a physical scientist who observes, studies, or forecasts the weather.

22. U3 M1 L2

22.1. Vocabulary

22.1.1. Hydrothermal deposits

22.1.1.1. the accumulation of minerals in fractures and cavities resulting from the circulation of hot waters in the Earth's crust

22.1.2. Subduction Zones

22.1.2.1. form where a plate with thinner (less-buoyant) oceanic crust descends beneath a plate with thicker (more-buoyant) continental crust.

22.1.3. Distribution of minerals

22.1.3.1. unevenly distributed on Earth due to a variety of geological processes

22.1.4. Soil

22.1.4.1. the upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or dark brown material typically consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay, and rock particles.

22.1.5. 5 Factors of soil formation

22.1.5.1. Parent material, climate, biota (organisms), topography and time.

22.1.6. Formation of Coal

22.1.6.1. when dead plant matter submerged in swamp environments is subjected to the geological forces of heat and pressure over hundreds of millions of years

22.1.7. Formation of Oil and Natural Gas

22.1.7.1. formed underground, over several to tens of millions of years, from prehistoric organisms decomposed by high subterranean heat and microorganisms

22.1.8. Porosity

22.1.8.1. a measure of the void spaces in a material

22.1.9. Permeability

22.1.9.1. the state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it to allow liquids or gases to pass through it.

22.1.10. Groundwater

22.1.10.1. Water that has travelled down from the soil surface and collected in the spaces between sediments and the cracks within rock

22.1.11. Groundwater distribution

22.1.11.1. unevenly distributed underground

23. U3 M2 L1

23.1. Vocabulary

23.1.1. Material

23.1.1.1. relating to, derived from, or consisting of matterphysical bodily of or relating to matter rather than form of or relating to the subject matter of reasoningempirical

23.1.2. Natural Material

23.1.2.1. A natural material is any product or physical matter that comes from plants, animals, or the ground which is not man-made

23.1.3. Synthetic Material

23.1.3.1. Synthetic materials are materials that are made by humans from natural resources

23.1.4. Reactants to Products

23.1.4.1. In a chemical reaction, reactants are substances that start the reaction, while products are substances that are produced in the reaction

24. U4 M1 L1

24.1. Vocabulary

24.1.1. Photosynthesis

24.1.1.1. the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.

24.1.2. Epidermal leaf cells

24.1.2.1. trichomes, pavement cells, and stomata

24.1.3. Cuticle

24.1.3.1. a thin layer of clear dead skin located at the nail bed

24.1.4. Stomata

24.1.4.1. any of the minute pores in the epidermis of the leaf or stem of a plant, forming a slit of variable width which allows movement of gases in and out of the intercellular spaces.

24.1.5. Mesophyll Cells

24.1.5.1. internal ground tissue located between the two epidermal cell layers of the leaf

24.1.6. Chloroplasts

24.1.6.1. Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that convert light energy into relatively stable chemical energy via the photosynthetic process. By doing so, they sustain life on Earth.

24.1.7. Chlorophyll A and B

24.1.7.1. Chlorophyll A- It is the most abundant type of chlorophyll, which absorbs light rays of wavelengths of 429 nm and 659 nm most effectively. Chlorophyll B- It is a type of accessory pigment responsible for passing on light energy to chlorophyll a. It is found in plants and green algae.

24.1.8. Light Cycle

24.1.8.1. The major biochemical correlate of the light-dark cycle is provided by the pineal melatonin rhythm. Under normal light-dark conditions, melatonin is produced only during the night and provides an internal representation of the environmental photoperiod, specifically night-length (scotoperiod).

24.1.9. Night Cycle

24.1.9.1. A night cycle, created in 1979, is used to process Automated Clearing House (ACH) transfers (debits and credits) at night—generally between 10:00 p.m. and 1:30 a.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST). The ACH is a nationwide system for transferring money electronically that is sometimes referred to as the "nighttime window."

24.1.10. Different sugars

24.1.10.1. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules made of two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose).

24.1.11. Cellular Respiration

24.1.11.1. Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that uses glucose to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an organic compound the body can use for energy. One molecule of glucose can produce a net of 30-32 ATP.

24.1.12. Glycolysis

24.1.12.1. Glycolysis ultimately splits glucose into two pyruvate molecules. One can think of glycolysis as having two phases that occur in the cytosol of cells. The first phase is the "investment" phase due to its usage of two ATP molecules, and the second is the "payoff" phase.

24.1.13. Mitochondria

24.1.13.1. an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner layer being folded inward to form layers (cristae).

24.1.14. Lactic Acid Fermentation

24.1.14.1. Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose or other six-carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution.

24.1.15. Ethanol Alcohol Fermentation

24.1.15.1. Alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of glucose into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon dioxide, producing two moles of ATP in the process. Sucrose is a sugar composed of a glucose linked to a fructose.

25. U4 M1 L3

25.1. Vocabulary

25.1.1. Carbon Cycle

25.1.1.1. The carbon cycle describes the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere. Since our planet and its atmosphere form a closed environment, the amount of carbon in this system does not change.

25.1.2. Water Cycle

25.1.2.1. It is a complex system that includes many different processes. Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form of rain and snow. Water in different phases moves through the atmosphere (transportation).

25.1.3. Oxygen Cycle

25.1.3.1. The entire cycle can be summarized as, the oxygen cycle begins with the process of photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight, releases oxygen back into the atmosphere, which humans and animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, and again linking back to the plants.

25.1.4. Nitrogen Cycle

25.1.4.1. The nitrogen cycle refers to the movement of nitrogen within and between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere. The nitrogen cycle matters because nitrogen is an essential nutrient for sustaining life on Earth.

26. U4 M2 L2

26.1. Vocabulary

26.1.1. Symbiosis

26.1.1.1. interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, typically to the advantage of both.

26.1.2. Commensalism

26.1.2.1. an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm.

26.1.3. Parasitism

26.1.3.1. a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life.

26.1.4. Mutualism

26.1.4.1. the doctrine that mutual dependence is necessary to social well-being.

26.1.5. Cooperative Relationships

26.1.5.1. arise from a history of mutually beneficial interactions between individuals

26.1.6. competitive Relationship

26.1.6.1. when two people in a relationship are actually competing with each other, seeking to win or be better than the other, instead of operating as a team.

26.1.7. Predator-prey relationship

26.1.7.1. one species eats the other