1. Viruses
1.1. Microscopic (20-40nm) NON-LIVING particles. Virons (viral particles) are essentially a NUCLEIC ACID surrounded by a PROTEIN COAT (capsid). Do NOT display many characteristics of LIVING THINGS. (not made of cells, no cytoplasm, organelles, cell membranes.)
1.2. Require a HOST (living cell) in order to survive and reproduce. Some are HARMLESS while others KILL their hosts or cause DISEASE. But ALL are INFECTIOUS.
1.2.1. Viral hosts: Living cells in which viruses REPLICATE (makes copies of itself). Viruses are SELECTIVE with regards to their host, some viruses infect SPECIFIC SPECIES; others only infect SPECIFIC CELLS within their host.
1.2.1.1. Ex. BACTERIOPHAGES are a group of viruses that infect bacterial cells.
1.2.1.2. Viruses NEVER ENTER the host cell. they INJECT their DNA into the host cell, while the CAPSID (protein coat) remains outside the cells
1.3. Structure of a Virus
1.3.1. Viruses vary in individual structure, but all viruses contain two major components: NUCLEIC ACID: DNA or RNA, and CAPSIDE: protien coat that gives viruses their shape and accounts for 95% of the virus. (determines the type of cell to which the virus can attach)
1.3.2. Some viruses have additional features: ENVELOPE: consists of lipids that comes from the host cell when the virus exists the cell (may help avoid host immune system detection), TAIL: viruses that infect bacteria have a tail for attachment
1.4. Classifying viruses
1.4.1. Viruses can be classified based on: the size and shape of the capsid, their genetic material, the disease they cause, and their host.
1.4.1.1. Size and shape of the capsid: Polyhedral, cylindrical, spherical, and complex
1.4.1.2. Genetic material: DNA virus (less virulent, mostly use lytic cycle), RNA virus (more virulent, mostly use lysogenic cycle)
1.4.1.3. Disease they cause: rhinovirus (common cold), herpes simplex virus, HIV virus, Ebola Virus
1.4.1.4. Their hosts: plant virus, animal virus, and bacteria virus
1.5. Virus Replication
1.5.1. The ONE CHARACTERISTIC that viruses share with living things is that they can MULTIPLY. They CANNOT do this on their own. Viruses have nucleic acids (INSTRUCTIONS), but LACK the BUILDING BLOCKS and machinery for replication. This is why they NEED a HOST.
1.5.1.1. Lytic Cycle
1.5.1.1.1. Typical (MOST COMMON) replication cycle. Viral genetic material is INJECTED into the host. Virus DIRECTS the host to use its genetic materials to make VIRAL PROTEINS and assemble MULTIPLE COPIES OF the virus.
1.5.1.2. Lysogenic Cycle
1.5.1.2.1. Viral genetic material is INJECTED into the host and INTEGRATED into the host cell's chromosomes. (THIS IS CALLED A PROVIRUS). Proviruses remain DORMANT for a period of time (months to years) and is REPLICATED along with the host cell. Once activated the viral DNA SEPERATES from the host DNA and triggers the duplication process
1.6. Treatment of viruses
1.6.1. UNAFFECTED BY ANTIBIOTICS
1.6.2. ANTIVIRAL DRUGS target particular stages of the viral life cycle (high rates of mutation of viral DNA)
1.6.3. Have developed successful VACCINES
2. Bacteria
2.1. UNICELLULAR, no nuclear membrane, small, only ONE CIRCULAR chromosome
2.2. Bacteria can be classified based on: morphology, cell wall, movement, type of respiration, metabolism, and reproduction.
2.2.1. 1. Morphology. There are 3 common shapes of prokaryotes.
2.2.1.1. Spherical. Singular: COCCUS, plural: COCCI
2.2.1.2. Rod. Singular: BACILLUS, plural: BACILLI.
2.2.1.3. Spiral. SPIRILLUM
2.2.1.4. When these bacteria cells aggregate, they can form groups.
2.2.1.4.1. DIPLO: Two.
2.2.1.4.2. STAPHYLO: in clusters
2.2.1.4.3. STREPTO: in chains
2.2.2. 2. Cell Wall. The bacterial cell wall is made out of PEPTIDOGLYCAN. We can classify bacteria as GRAM POSITIVE or GRAM NEGATICE when analyzing cell walls. To determine, we stain a sample of bacteria with crystal violet and iodine to determine cell wall thickness.
2.2.2.1. Gram positive: stained purple, indicating thick peptdoglycan layer
2.2.2.2. Gram negative: stained pink, indicating think peptidoglycan layer
2.2.2.3. Composition of cell wall is UNIQUE to the strain of bacteria. ANTIBIOTICS target cell walls (can create antibiotics that target specific BACTERIAL STRAINS)
2.2.3. 3. Movement. There are 3 primary structures for movement.
2.2.3.1. FLAGELLUM: tail-like structure that whips around to propel the bacteria.
2.2.3.2. CILIA: small hair-like projections surrounding the cell that helps it swim back and forth
2.2.3.3. CILIA (NON-MOTILE): sticky cilia-like structures that keep the bacteria from moving
2.2.4. 4. Types of Respiration
2.2.4.1. OBLIGATE AEROBES: must have oxygen for growth.
2.2.4.2. OBLIGATE ANAEROBES: do not require oxygen (oxygen is toxic) for growth
2.2.4.3. FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES: can SWITCH between aerobic and anaerobic
2.2.5. 5. Metabolism
2.2.5.1. AUTOTROPHIC: makes their own energy from raw materials
2.2.5.1.1. PHOTOSYNTHETIC: converst solar energy into food
2.2.5.1.2. CHEMOSYNTHETIC: makes food using chemicals in the environment
2.2.5.2. HETEROTROPHIC: cannot make their own food and obtains food from an external source.
2.2.5.2.1. SYMBIOTIC: lives on or in other things; a give-take relationship.
2.2.5.2.2. Saprophytic: lives off dead organic matter or wastes
2.2.6. 6. Reproduction
2.2.6.1. Binary Fission: Bacteria COPIES its genetic informtion and then splits into TWO IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS. Bacteria CANNOT perform mitosis or meiosis because they LACK a NUCLEUS
2.3. Sources of Genetic Variation
2.3.1. Transformation
2.3.1.1. A bacterium cell can ABSORB DNA from DEAD bacteria in its environment.
2.3.1.1.1. Ex. Viral infection breaks open a bacterial cell, releasing DNA into the environment
2.3.2. Transduction
2.3.2.1. Bacterial genes can be CARRIED from one bacterial cell to another via BACTERIOPHAGE VIRUS. occurs because a piece of bacterial chromosome is accidentally removed alongside PROVIRUS during lysogenic cycle.
2.3.3. Conjugation
2.3.3.1. The process by which a bacterium cell EXCHANGES DNA (usually a plasmid) with another bacterium cell. PLASMID: small circular loops of DNA that are separate from the main bacterial chromosome material DNA
2.3.3.1.1. Donor cell attaches itself to the recipient cell via a PILUS. Donor cell donates a copy of a plasmid.
2.3.3.1.2. Plasmid can contain genes for ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE. (increases genetic diversity and adaptability of bacteria.)
2.4. Harmful Bacteria
2.4.1. Diphtheria: posion given off as waste causes serious damange to the human body. Causes sour throat, can be cured with vaccine.
2.4.2. Typhoid Fever Bacteria: causes typhoid fever, caused when people injest food or water where the bacteria lives. (unfiltered, unsafe water)
2.4.3. Pneumonia bacteria: cause pneumonia, very dangerous. Settles in the lungs, often found in the throat.
2.4.4. Bacteria of Tuberculosis: deadly germs that can cause tuberculosis, grows in the lungs.
2.4.5. Bacteria of blood poisoning: causes blood poisoning, round bacteria that grows in chains
2.4.6. Bacteria of food poisoning: Causes a kind of food poisoning, as it develops, it gives off a powerful poison as a waste product.
2.5. Helpful Bacteria
2.5.1. Bacteria of Decay: Decomposes dead organisms to break down into base components for other organisms to use
2.5.2. Bacteria of Fermentation: Causes chemmical changes in certain foods. Helps human digestion system. Turns grapes into wine.
2.5.3. Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria - In Soil: makes nitrates from nitrogen in the air. Living in soul. Helps make rich soil alond with bacteria of decay.
2.5.4. Nitrogen-Fixing bacteria in nodule: living in small groups on the roots of certain plants. Enables the plants they live on to take in nitrogen.
2.5.5. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in Roots: lives in the roots of certian plants. The plant and bacteria have a mutualistic relationship, the bacteria makes nitrates for the plants to use and the bacteria gets to live in the plants.
2.5.6. Vinegar Bacteria: bacteria works on sugars to ferment to form vinegar. Known to chemists as acetic.
2.5.7. Cheese Bacteria: multiple different types of bacteria are used to make different types of cheese
2.5.8. Sour milk bacteria: makes yogurt. Makes milk clot and sour.
3. Archaea
3.1. Although archaea and bacteria share some common characteristics, they are quite distinct. Like bacteria, archaea reproduce via BINARY FISSION and are PROKARYOTES.
3.2. Unlike bacteria, archaea do NOT have cell walls made out of PEPTIDOGLYCAN. Bacteria tend to be MESOPHILES (live in moderate environments), while archaea are EXTREMOPHILES (live in extreme enviornments)
3.3. Archaea can be classified based on their habitat.
3.3.1. HALOPHILE (loves salt)
3.3.2. THERMOPHILE (loves heat)
3.3.3. ACIDOPHILE (loves acidic enviornment)
3.3.4. PSYCHROPHILE (loves the cold)
4. ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
4.1. Initially, there weer only PROKARYOTES (bacteria and archaea) on Eartn, and eventually the evolution of EUKARYOTES took place.
4.2. Eukaryotic evolution can be explained by a theory called ENDOSYMBIOSIS.
4.2.1. Endosymbiosis: a SYMBIOTIC relationship between two or more PROKARYOTIC cells.
4.2.1.1. One prokaryotic cell (HOST CELL) engulfs another type of prokaryotic cell. The engulfed cell (ENDOSYMBIONT) survives and becomes an integral part of the host cell. Endosymbiont is not digested as it provides an ADVANTAGE to the host cell
4.2.1.1.1. Possible engulfed components: mitochondrion, chloroplast.
4.2.1.1.2. After endosymbiosus we now have cells WITH organelles = first eukaryotes.
4.2.2. Evidence for endosymbiotic theory: mitochonria and chloroplasts have the following similarities to prokaryotes:
4.2.2.1. they have their own CIRCULAR DNA (chloroplast DNA is similar to cyanobacteria DNA)
4.2.2.2. The undergo BINARY FISSION to replicate organelles
4.2.2.3. They contain CELL MEMBRANES that are similar in structure to the membranes of prokaryotes.
4.3. Mutualism: the association between organisms of two DIFFERENT species in which each benefits from the other.
5. Protists: Mostly consisting of unicellular organisms. Protists are eukaryotes that are NOT animals, plants, or fungi, but are very similar to them.
5.1. Protozoan (ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS)
5.1.1. They are HETEROTROPHS (cannot produce their own food source) and consumes other prokaryotes, protozoa, and organic waste for energy. Some are PARASITES (they take nutrients from the host organisms.)
5.1.2. Protozoa are classified by MOVEMENT (how they move)
5.1.2.1. Phylum Sarcodina: Uses pseudopods (limb-like apendages) to move
5.1.2.1.1. Lives in fresh/salt WATER, MUD, or INSIDE animal HOSTS
5.1.2.1.2. Pseudopods are extensions of the cytoplasm caused by REARRANGEMENT OF THE CYTOPLASM
5.1.2.1.3. when the Sarcodina detects food, they use their pseudopods to engulf them using a process known as PHAGOCYTOSIS
5.1.2.1.4. Entamoeba hystolitica can cause AMOEBIC DYSENTERY (it feeds on the small intestine lining of humans)
5.1.2.2. Phylum Ciliophora: uses cilia to move.
5.1.2.2.1. Free living in STAGNENT, WARM water. Cilia are short hair-like projections on the surface of the cell.
5.1.2.2.2. Paramecium are part of Phylum Ciliphora. They use their cilia to sweep FOOD down their ORAL GROOVE into their gullet. FOOD VACUOLE forms at the end to digest waste. Waste is removed through the anal pore.
5.1.2.3. Phylum Zoomastigina: uses flagella to move
5.1.2.3.1. Active parasite that lives in the BLOODSTREAMS of vertebrate. Flagellas are tail-like structures that whips around from side to side.
5.1.2.3.2. Some FLAGELLATES are free living, parasitic OR live in MUTUALISTIC relationships
5.1.2.4. Phylum Sportozoa: non-motile (doesn't move on its own)
5.1.2.4.1. Ex. Plasmodium: Active PARASITE that lives in the BLOODSTREAM of animals. NON-MOTILE: moves from one host to another via vectors that injest infected cells.
5.1.2.4.2. Plasmodium Absorbs nutrients from the body fluids of their host. they ALTERNATE between ASEXUAL and SEXUAL reproduction.
5.2. Slime mould (FUNGI-LIKE PROTISTS)
5.2.1. Like fungi, they are HETEROTROPHS. Also like fungi, they produce SPORES (reproductive cell that can develop into a new organism WITHOUT FUSSION with another reproductive cell.)
5.2.1.1. Phylum Mxyomycota: Plasmodial slime moulds
5.2.1.1.1. Exists as PLASMODIUM (thin layers of protoplasm containing MULTIPLE nuclei). Found in TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS (near damp/decaying plant materials.)
5.2.1.1.2. Plasmodial slime moulds feed off decaying matter through phagocytosis. (like ameoba)
5.2.1.2. Phylum Acrasiomycota: Cellular slime moulds
5.2.1.2.1. Exists as INDIVIDUAL CELLS with ONE nucleus each. Found in DARK, COOL, AND MOIST enviornments. (like forest floors)
5.2.1.2.2. Cellular slime moulds feed on tiny BACTERIA or YEAST. When food is scarce they release a chemical called PSEUDOPLASMODIUM. (multiple individual cells act as a single organism)
5.2.1.3. Phylum Oomycota: water moulds
5.2.1.3.1. exists as FILAMENTOUS organisms. Found on DEAD organic matter or in hosts as PARASITES. Water moulds feed by releasing DIGESTIVE ENZYMES using threads into their hosts and absorbing the nutrients within.
5.3. Algae (PLANT-LIKE PROTISTS)
5.3.1. Like plants, they contain pigments within their chloroplast that allows for PHOTOSYNTHESIS. (autotrophic) Classified based on CELL NUMBER
5.3.1.1. Phylum Chrysophyta: Diatoms
5.3.1.1.1. AKA PHYTOPLANKTON. They have rigid cell walls made of SILICA. Can reproduce ASEXUALLY (most of the time) or SEXUALLY (when conditions are favourable)
5.3.1.2. Phylum Pyrrophyta: Dinoflagellates
5.3.1.2.1. MOST are phytoplankton, while others have MUTUALISITC relationships with other organisms such as coral reefs. They have TWO FLAGELLA PERPINDICULAR TO EACH OTHER.
5.3.1.2.2. Under favourbale conditions, they reproduce very quickly (ALGAL BLOOM)
5.3.1.3. *Phylum Euglenophyta: Euglenoids
5.3.1.3.1. Lives in SHALLOW FRESH water. Moves using FLAGELLA.
5.3.1.3.2. Amount of sunlught in the enviornment dictates their nutrient acquirement method. ex. EUGLENA
5.3.1.4. Phylum Rhosophyta: Red Algae
5.3.1.4.1. has CHLOROPHYLL for photosynthesis and PHYCOERYTHRIN (giving it a red colour to allow it to thrive in deeper ocean depths.)
5.3.1.5. Phylum Phaeophyta: Brown Algae
5.3.1.5.1. The largest and most complex protists (ex. Kelp). Has CHLOROPHYLL and FUCOXANTHIN (brown colouring)
5.3.1.5.2. They LOOK LIKE PLANTS but as they DO NOT have TRUE LEAVES OR ROOTS OR VASCULAR SYSTEM, they are not true plants.
5.3.1.5.3. Specialized structures
5.3.1.6. Phylum Chlorophyta: Green Algae
5.3.1.6.1. Lives in AQUATIC or TERRESTRIAL enviornments (fresh water and tree trunks)
5.3.1.6.2. Most plant-like algae have the smae CHLOROPHYLL pigment molecules, cell walls made of CELLULOSE, and store energy in the form of STARCH
5.3.2. Evolutionary Relationships: Based on the similarities and analysis of DNA SEQUENCES, we are fairly certain that GREEN ALGAE are the closest evolutionary relatives of LAND PLANTS.
5.3.2.1. Green algae mostly lives in AQUATIC enviornments while most plants live in TERRESTRIAL enviornments, which means their common ancestory must've developed ADAPTATIONS to live on land.
5.3.2.2. ADAPTATIONS TO LIVE ON LAND
5.3.2.2.1. Protection from DESICCATION (drying out)
5.3.2.2.2. A system to transport water and nutrients throughout plant-VASCULAR SYSTEM. There are two types of vascular tissue
5.3.2.2.3. Support system for plants: the development of TRUE ROOTS to anchor plant to the ground, the development of TRUE STEMS to provide structure/support, and the development of TRUE LEAVES to increase surface area
5.3.2.2.4. Development of embryos: EMBRYO (an organsm's early pre-birth stage of development)
5.3.2.2.5. SPORIC REPRODUCTION CYCLE
6. Animals
6.1. Multicellular and HETEROTROPHIC. They do not have cell walls, reproduce SEXUALLY (INVERTEBRATES) and are MOTILE at some point in their lives
6.2. Animals can be classified based on 1. Levels of organization, 2. number of germ layers, 3. symmetry, 4. body cavities, 5. segmentation, 6. movement.
7. Species: There is no one definition of a species, there are three main concepts to define them. Morphological species concept, biological species concept, and phylogentic species concept.
7.1. Morphological: focuses on the morphology, or structure of the organism.
7.2. Biological: focuses on the the ability of an organism to mate in nature and produce VIABLE, FERTILE offspring.
7.3. Phelogentic: Focuses on phylogeny. (evolutionary relationships between organisms determined by comparing DNA amongst organisms)
8. Taxonomy: the branch of science concerned with CLASSIFYING DIFFERENT ORGANISMS. We primarily use the LINNAEAN TAXONOMY SYSTEM (BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE)
8.1. Carolus Linnaeus classified organisms according to STRUCTURAL similarities. Modern scientists built on his ideas to classify organisms using EIGHT RANKS. The specific group that each organism belons to within each rank is know as a TAXON. (plural taxa)
8.2. Ranks: DOMAIN (domains), KINGDOM (kingdoms), PHYLUM (phyla), CLASS (classes), ORDER (orders), FAMILY (families), GENUS (genera), SPECIES (species)
8.2.1. Dear King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup.
8.3. To be part of a specific taxon, an organism needs to have the necessary characteristics.
8.3.1. Ex. Phylum (Rank) Chordata (Taxon). To be a chordate an organism must have a spinal cord and post anal tail.
8.4. DOMAIN is the broadest rank and has the MOST # of species for a given taxon. SPECIES is the narrowest rank and only has ONE SPECIES for a given taxon.
8.4.1. as we move from Domain to Species, the # of species in each specific taxon DECREASES; however, the specificity of the characteristics INCREASES
9. Rank 1: DOMAIN. all living organisms can be classified into 3 domains. BACTERIA, ARCHAEA, EUKARYA.
9.1. Rank 2: KINGDOM. All living organisms are classified into 6 kingdoms. ANIMALS, PLANTS, FUNGI, PROTISTS, EUBACTERIA, ARCHAEBACTERIA.
9.1.1. BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE: a system developed by Carolus Linnaeus to name species. A species name consists of two words: the GENUS and the SPECIES taxa. (IN THAT ORDER)
9.1.1.1. Ex. humans = Homo Sapiens (homo -> genus, sapian -> species)
9.1.1.2. First letter of a genus is CAPITALIZED, first letter of species is NOT CAPITALIZED, when typed both words are ITALICIZED, when hand-written, both words are UNDERLINED SEPARATELY.
9.2. Bacteria -> Kingdom Eubacteria, archaea -> archaebacteria, eukarya -> plants, animals, fungi, protists
9.3. Can be classified based on FIVE CHARACTERISTICS. Nutrition, # of cells, reproduction, habitat, cell types
9.3.1. Autotrophic: uses the sun's energy to make their own food.
9.3.2. Heterotrophic: consumes living or dead organisms to obtain energy
9.3.3. Unicellular: made up of one cell
9.3.4. Multicellular: made up of 2 or more cells
9.3.5. Asexual reproduction: offspring produced from a single parent and are genetically IDENTICAL to parent.
9.3.6. Sexual: offspring produced by fusion of sex cells from two parents; offspring are genetically DISTINCT.
9.3.7. Prokaryote: circular chromosome, no membrane-bound organellles, very small, reproduce through BINARY FISSION
9.3.8. Eukaryote: Double-stranded chromosomes, HAS membrane-bound organelles, larger than prokaryotes, reproduce via mitosis or meiosis
10. Biodiversity Refers to the VARIETY OF LIFE on Earth at all levels, from genetics to ecosystems.
10.1. 3 types of genetic diversity: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
10.1.1. Genetic diversity: the variety of heritable characteristics (genes) within a species
10.1.1.1. Importance of genetic diversity
10.1.1.1.1. Provides reisistance to disease. Lack of diversity makes a population more SUSCEPTIBLE to disease. (extreme case: EXTINCTION)
10.1.1.1.2. Provides resistance against changing conditions. Changing conditions: resource availability, climate change, predator population, invasive species
10.1.1.1.3. Supports conservation biology. Human intervention, in the form of CONSERVATION PROGRAMS, is introduced to help endangered and nearly extinct species.
10.1.2. Species diversity: VARIETY (richness) and ABUNDANCE (evenness) of species in a given area.
10.1.2.1. Importance of Species Diversity
10.1.2.1.1. Provides resilience. Within an ecosystem, the greater the SPECIES DIVERSITY, the greater the RESILIENCE. REsilience: the ability of an ecosystem to remain FUNCTIONAL and STABLE in the presence of disturbances to its parts.
10.1.2.1.2. Ecosystem services. BENEFITS experienced by organisms, including humans, which are provided by SUSTAINABLE ecosystems
10.1.3. Ecosystem diversity: variety of ECOSYSTEMS found in a given area.
10.1.3.1. Importance of ecosystem diversity
10.1.3.1.1. Ecosystem services
10.1.3.1.2. All of the above
10.1.4. Genetic diveristy is the smallest group while ecosystem diveristy is the largest.
11. Dichotomous Keys: system or tool that scientists use to IDENTIFY an UNKNOWN specimen/organism. System consists of a series of TWO PART CHOICES whic eventually help to narrow down the unknown organism's idenity.
11.1. Formet: label each series of two part questions using LETTERS and NUMBERS (1a and 1b). include DOTTED LINES after descriptions. Use PROPER NOTATION to write species. Must be mutally exclusive. Begin with general characteristics and eventually use more specific questions.
12. Plants: MULTICELLULAR and AUTOTROPHIC (makes their own food)
12.1. Plants are classified based on the presence/absence of VASCULAR TISSUE and SEEDS
12.1.1. Non-vascular plants (BRYOPHYTES)
12.1.1.1. No VASCULAR TISSUE (depends on diffusion and osmosis)
12.1.1.1.1. There are 3 phyla of bryophytes
12.1.1.2. Life cycle:A. Spores germinate/mature to become male and female GAMETETOPHYTES.
12.1.1.2.1. B. Male gametophytes have male organs (ANTHERIDIA) and female gametophytes have female organs (ARCHEGONIA)
12.1.2. Seedless vascular plants
12.1.2.1. Have a TRUE VASCULAR system, allowing them to grow tall.
12.1.2.2. They have a SPORIC life cycle (plants can exist as sporophytes and gametophytes)
12.1.2.2.1. A. Spores germinate/mature to become the GAMETOPHYTE (called PROTHALLUS)
12.1.2.3. There are 4 phyla
12.1.2.3.1. Whisk ferns
12.1.2.3.2. Club mosses
12.1.2.3.3. Horsetails
12.1.2.3.4. Ferns
12.1.3. C.i. Seed producing vascular plants (GYMNOSPERMS)
12.1.3.1. Seeds allow plants to reproduce sexually WITHOUT WATER (embryos are protected from DESICCATION by the seeds). Seeds provide PROTECTION against HARSH environmental conditions
12.1.3.2. Two types of seed-producing vascular plants
12.1.3.2.1. Gymnosperms
12.1.3.2.2. Angiosperms