1. Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food (Ch.7)
1.1. Autotrophs: They make their own food. They can sustain themselves without consuming organic molecules.
1.1.1. VS.
1.1.1.1. Hetertrophs: Consumes other plants, animals, or decompose organic material
1.2. Overall Goal of Photosynthesis and the Chemical equation
1.2.1. To convert CO2 and H2O to their own organic molecules, which release O2 as a by product
1.2.2. Light, carbon dioxide,water 6CO2+ 6H2O ----> C6H12O+ 6O2
1.2.3. 6CO2 is REDUCED to 6CO2+H12O6+O2
1.2.4. Water is OXIDIZED o oxygen
1.3. Stages of Photosnhesis
1.3.1. Light-Dependent Reaction: To convert light energ to poential energy stored in ATP. Another goal is o take the electrons from water and place on them on a elecron carrier NADPH
1.3.1.1. Inputs: H2O, light energy
1.3.1.2. Outputs: O2, ATP, NADPH
1.3.1.3. Location: Thylakoid Membrane
1.3.2. Calvin Cycle: To reduce CO2 to glucose. NADPH provides the electrons needed to make glucose. ATP provides the energy needed o make glucose. The enzyme involved in he fist step of the Calvin Cycle is the Rubisco. The most abundant enzyme on earth.
1.3.2.1. Inputs: CO2, ATP, NADPH
1.3.2.2. Outputs: G3P (Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate)
1.3.2.3. Location: Stroma
1.4. Photosystems
1.4.1. PSII
1.4.1.1. Electrons from P680 are transferred to an electron acceptor in the reaction center. The Electrons that move in the reaction center are quickly replaced by electrons that come from the splitting of H2O. As the electron move from the electron acceptor, they cool off and lose energy. This energy is used to pump H+ into he space of the hylakoid. This creates concentration gradient. The only way that the H+ diffuse back to the stoma is the chemisosis.ATP si produced will be used in the Calvin Cycle to make glucose
1.4.1.2. PSI
1.4.1.2.1. The electrons now end up in PSI, sunlight hits the reaction center. The electrons then lose energy. The electrons will end up being in NADPH. The electrons from water will in NADPH at he end of light dependent reactions
2. The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance (Ch.8)
2.1. Chromatin
2.1.1. Unpack aged DNA associated with proteins present during interphase
2.2. Chromosomes
2.2.1. Highly condensed DNA visible during metaphase
2.3. Chromatid
2.3.1. One identical DNA copy produced by reolication
2.4. Centriole
2.4.1. Small cylindrical cell organelle
2.5. Cenrosome
2.5.1. Organizes microtubles to form the spindle during mitosis
2.6. Centromere
2.6.1. Site of mitotic spindle attachment during mitosis
2.7. Which produces Diploid cells?
2.7.1. Mitosis
2.7.1.1. What produces Haploid Cells?
2.7.1.1.1. Meiosis
2.8. Stages of Mitosis (IPPMAT)
2.8.1. Interphase: Cell grows and synthesizes new molecules and oraganelles
2.8.2. Prophase: The chomosomes condense and the nuclear envelope starts to disappear
2.8.3. Prometaphase: The chromosomes attach to he spindle fibers and the nucleus disappearscompletely
2.8.4. Metaphase: The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
2.8.5. Anaphase: The sister chromatids start to pull apart from each other
2.8.6. Telephase: The two sets of chromosomes a opposite ends of the cell and he nuclear envelope re-forms
2.9. Nondisjunction
2.9.1. Is the failure of chromosomes/chromatids to separate normally during meiosis. Fertilization after nondisjunction yields zygotes with alerted numbers of chromosomes
2.10. Chromosomal Rearrangements: Genetic disorders and cancer can be caused
2.10.1. Deletion
2.10.1.1. Loss of a chromosome segment
2.10.2. Duplication
2.10.2.1. the repeat of a chromosomes
2.10.3. Inversion
2.10.3.1. the attachment of a segment to a nonhomologous chromosomes that can be reciprocal
2.11. Cell Cycle Control System: is a cycling of he molecules in he cell hat riggers and coordinates key events in he cell cycle
2.11.1. G1- the MOST imporant, they know if a cell can go onto he next stages S G2 M G0- this is only when a cell switch o a permanently nondiving state. The cell will ge sent back
2.12. Genetic variability arise during cell division in crossing over. its an exchange o corresponding segments between non sister chromaids of he homologous chromosomes
2.13. Asexual Reproduction
2.13.1. Create genetically identical off springs by a single parent
2.13.1.1. VS
2.13.1.1.1. Sexual Reproduction
3. Patterns of Ineritance (Ch.9)
3.1. Hybrids
3.1.1. Cross
3.1.1.1. The offspring of two different varieties
3.1.1.2. Cross fertilization itself is referred to as a hybridization or simply a genetic cross
3.1.2. The F's
3.1.2.1. F1- Thei hybrid offspring
3.1.2.2. F2- when F1 self fertilize or fertilize each other, their offspring are
3.2. Punnett Square: Shows possible combinaions
3.2.1. Monohybrid Cross: The parent plan differ in only one character
3.2.2. Dihybrid Cross: A mating o parental varieties diffing in two characters
3.3. Alleles
3.3.1. Alternative versions of a gene
3.4. Homozyous
3.4.1. Two identical alleles for a gene (BB or bb)
3.5. Heterozygous
3.5.1. Have two different alleles for a gene (Bb)
3.6. Dominant
3.6.1. If he two alleles of an inherited pair differ, than one determines the organism appearance
3.6.1.1. VS
3.6.1.1.1. Recessive
3.7. Law of Segregation
3.7.1. A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate from each other during the production of gametes
3.8. Phenoype
3.8.1. Physical Traits
3.8.1.1. VS
3.8.1.1.1. Genotype
3.9. Pleiotropy
3.9.1. One gene influences multiple characters. The control of more than one pheotypic characteristic by a single gene
3.10. Pedigree
3.10.1. A family genetic tree representing he occurrence of heritable traits in parents and offspring across a number of generations. Also to can used to determine genotype of mating ha have already occurred
3.11. Sex Chromosomes
3.11.1. Many animals including fruit flies have a pair. The designated X or Y, that determine an individuals sex
4. Molecular Biology of the Gene (Ch.10)
4.1. Double Helix
4.1.1. The diameter of the helix suggested that i was made up of two polynucleotide stands
4.2. DNA: DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
4.2.1. The Four Nucleoides found are: Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
4.3. RNA: RiboNucleic Acid
4.3.1. Implies, its sugar is ribose rather than deoxyribose
4.3.2. Instead of a Thymine, RNA has a nitrogenous base called Uracil (U)
4.4. DNA Replication
4.4.1. Starts in the Origin of Replication
4.4.2. The enzyme, helicase is responsible for pulling the two strands apart
4.4.3. The two strands want to stick back together (they were attached by hydrogen bonds) so proteins called single strand DNA binding come in and act as doorstops so they remain separated
4.4.4. This place where he two strands are pulled apart is Y which is called the replication fork
4.5. The Synthesis of the DNA
4.5.1. After the two parent strands are pulled apart, there are two new daughter stands being made. The leading strand is made continuously because the parent strand it is coming off of is in the 3' to 5' direction. A short piece of RNA called a primer sticks to he beginning of the parent strand in order to start the new growing strand. The enzyme polymerse is then responsible for bringing in he new nucleotides to the growing 3' end. In he lagging strand, The DNA is made in pieces, each primed separately. This is because he replication fork is like a zipper and unzipped in the opposite direction of DNA synthesis.
4.6. Repairing Mistakes and Damage
4.6.1. DNA polymerase acts a proofreader so that if the wrong base is added in it, immediately is changed out to the right one.
4.6.2. If there are still error after the DNA is synthesized, there is another set of enzymes that correct it. Its called a mismatch repair.
5. Are Single-ring structures called pyrimidines
6. Are larger, double-ring structures called purines
7. How Genes are Controlled (Ch.11)
7.1. Gene regulation: is the turing on and off button of genes
7.2. Gene expression: is the overall process of the information flow from the genes to proteins
7.3. Promoter
7.3.1. A specific nucleotide sequences in DNA located near the start of a gene that is the binding site for RNA polymerase and the place where transcription begins.
7.4. Repressor
7.4.1. A protein that blocks the transcription of a gene or operon
7.5. Activator
7.5.1. A protein that switches on a gene or group of genes
7.6. Transcription Factor
7.6.1. In the eukaryoric cell, a protein that functions in initiating or regulating transcription. Transcription factors bind to DNA or to other proteins that bind to DNA.
7.7. Enhancer
7.7.1. A eukaryotic DNA sequence that helps stimulate the transcription of a gene at some distance from it. An enhancer functions b means of transcription by means of a transcription factor called an activator which binds to it and then to the rest of the transcription apparatus.
7.8. Silencer
7.8.1. A euaryortic DNA sequence that functions to inhibit the start of gene transcription may act analogously to an enhancer by binding a repressor.
7.9. Two types of repressor-controlled operons
7.9.1. Lac-operon
7.9.1.1. Active when alone
7.9.1.2. inactive when bound to lactose
7.9.2. Trp bacterial operon
7.9.2.1. inactive when alone
7.9.2.2. active when bound ammino acid
7.10. DNA packing: eukaryotic chromosomes undergo multiple levels of folding and coiling
7.11. Nucleosomes are formed when DNA wrapped around histone protiens
7.12. DNA packing can prevent gene expression by preventing RNA polymersase and other transcription proteins from contacting the DNA
8. DNA Technology and Genomics(Ch12.)
8.1. Recombinant DNA: is formed when scientist combine nucleotide sequences from two different sources often different species, to form a single DNA molecule
8.2. Steps of Cloning
8.2.1. 1. A plasmind is isolated
8.2.1.1. Plasminds: are small, circular DNA ,molecules that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome.
8.2.2. 2. The cell's DNA is isolated
8.2.3. 3. The plasmid is cut with an enzyme
8.2.4. 4. The cell's DNA is cut with the same enzyme
8.2.5. 5. The targeted fragment and plasmid DNA are combined
8.2.6. 6. DNA ligase is added which joins the two DNA molecules
8.2.7. 7. The recombinant plasmid is taken up by a bacterium through transformation
8.2.8. 8. The bacterium reproduces
8.2.9. 9. Harvested protein may be used directly
8.3. Gene therapy: aims to treat a disease by supplying a functional allel alteration of afflicted individuals genes and attempt to treat diseases
8.4. PCR: Polumerase Chain Reaction is a method of amplifying a specific segments of a DNA molecule. PCR relies upon a pair of primers that are short, chemcially synthesized; single strand of DNA and three step cycle that double the amount of DNA
9. Exploring Life (Ch.1)
9.1. Forms of life share common properties
9.1.1. Order
9.1.2. Reproduction
9.1.3. Growth and Development
9.1.4. Energy Proccessing
9.1.5. Response to the envioronment
9.1.6. Regualtion
9.1.7. Evolutionary adaptation
9.2. Biosphere (all of the environments on Earth that support life)
9.2.1. Ecosystem: Consists of all the organisms living in a particular area.
9.2.2. Community: An entire array of organisms in an ecosystem.
9.2.3. Population: Includes all the individuals of a particular species living in an area.
9.2.4. Organism: An individual living thing.
9.2.5. Organ System: Consists of several organs that cooperate in a specific function.
9.2.6. Organ: Made up of several different tissues.
9.2.7. Tissues: Each made up of a group of similar cells that perform a specific function.
9.2.8. A Cell: Is a fundamental unit of life.
9.2.9. Organelle: Is a membrane enclosed structure that performs a specific function in a cell.
9.2.10. Molecule: Is a cluster of small chemical units called atoms.
9.3. 3 Domains of life
9.3.1. Bacteria: Are the most diverse and widespread prokaryotes.
9.3.2. Archaea: Can live in extreme environments
9.3.3. Eukarya: Cell that have a nucleus and other internal structures called organelles.
9.3.3.1. Eukarya: Which have a nucleus and other internal structures.
9.4. Charles Darwin theor
9.4.1. 1. Individuals in a population vary in their traits, many of which are passed on from parents to offspring. 2. A population can produce far more offspring than the environment can support.
9.5. The Process of Science
9.5.1. Inductive Reasoning: Collecting and analyzing observations can lead to conclusions
9.5.2. Hypothesis: Is a proposed explanation for a set of observations.
9.5.3. Deductive Reasoning: Logic flows from general premises to the specific results we should expect if the premises are true.
9.5.4. Theory: Is a much broader in scope than a hypothesis.Supported by a large and usually growing body of evidence.
9.5.5. Controlled Experiment: Is designed to compare and experimental group with a control group. The experimental and control groups differ only in the ones factor the experiment is designed to test.
10. The Chemical Basis of Life (Ch.2)
10.1. Four elements that make up 96% of living matter
10.1.1. Oxygen
10.1.2. Carbon
10.1.3. Hydrogen
10.1.4. Nitrogen
10.2. Anything that takes up space and has mass
10.2.1. Matter
10.3. Is a substance that cannot be broken down by chemical reactions.
10.3.1. Element
10.4. Is a substance consisting two or more different elements in a fixed ratio.
10.4.1. Compound
10.5. Three Components of an Atom
10.5.1. Protons: which have a + charge
10.5.2. Electrons: which have a - charge
10.5.3. Neutrons: Are electrically neutral
10.6. Atomic # and Mass #
10.6.1. Atomic # is the number of protons in an atom
10.6.2. The mass # is the number of Pro and Neutrons in an atom
10.6.3. The # of Neutrons can be determined by subtracting the atomic # from the mass #
10.6.4. An Atomic is neutral in charge, the # of electrons is equal to the # of protons
10.7. Bonds
10.7.1. Covalent: A bond forms when two atoms share electons
10.7.2. Non-polar covalent: A bond forms when two atoms share electons EQUALLY.
10.7.3. Polar Covalent: A bond forms when two atoms share electrons UNEQUALLY.
10.7.4. Ionic: A bond forms when one atom gives or takes an electron from another atom.
10.8. pH scale
10.8.1. Acid: A compound that donates hydrogen ions to solutions. Such a tomato juice, coke cola, battery acid.
10.8.2. Base: A compound that accepts hydrogen ions and removes them from solutions. Such as household bleach and oven cleaner.
11. The Molecules of Cells (Ch.3)
11.1. Four groups of Macromolecules
11.1.1. Carbohydrates
11.1.1.1. Are Compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. contains mostly monosaccharides, use it as main source or energy
11.1.2. Proteins
11.1.2.1. Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Polymers of molecules called amino acids. Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes. Some are used to form bones and musccles, while others transport substances into our out of the cell.
11.1.3. Lipids
11.1.3.1. Are made up from carbon and hydrogen atoms. Some form when a glycerol molecule combines with fatty acids
11.1.4. Nucleic Acids
11.1.4.1. Contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus. They are polymers assembled from individual monomers called nucleotides. Stored and transmit hereditary information. RNA and DNA
11.2. Functional Groups
11.2.1. Hydroxyl Group: -OH
11.2.2. Carbonyl Group: \/ C=O
11.2.3. Carboxyl Group: -COOH
11.2.4. Amino Group: -NH2 (small 2)
11.2.5. Phosphate Group: -OPO3 2- (small 3, up right small 2-)
11.2.6. Methyl Group: -CH3 (small 3)
11.3. Specialized marcromolecules that speed up chemical reactions in cells.
11.3.1. Enzymes
11.4. Building blocks are joined together by __________ reactions.
11.4.1. Hydrolysis
11.5. Building blocks are borken up by ______ reactions.
11.5.1. Dehydration
11.6. Building blocks of a large macromolecule is called?
11.6.1. Polymer
11.7. Large Organic molecule made up of building blocks is called?
11.7.1. Monomer
12. A Tour of the Cell (Ch.4)
12.1. Parts of a Cell:
12.1.1. Nucleus:"Mayor of City hall" Nucleus is the brain of the cell and controls all activity within the cell
12.1.2. Ribosomes: "Lumber or brickyard" Carry out the manual labor in the form of protein for the nucleus
12.1.3. Endoplasmic Reticulum: "Highway/Road System
12.1.3.1. Rough ER: A source of proteins
12.1.3.2. Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes, responsible for lipids synthesis and processes a variety a metabolic process such as drug detoxification
12.1.4. Cell Membrane (animals) and Cell Wall (plants: "City Border" and "City Wall"
12.1.4.1. Cell Membrane: Ability to regulate entrance and exit of substances, maintaining internal balance
12.1.4.2. Cell Wall: Much stronger than cell membrane. Protects cell from exploding in extremely diluted solutions.
12.1.5. Cytoskeleton "Steel Girders": Makes up the internal framework. Give each cell its distinctive shape and high level organization.
12.1.5.1. Microfilaments: Also called Actin filaments. Soild rock composed mainly of globular proteins. Arranged in a twisted double chain.
12.1.5.2. Intermediate Filament: Serve mainly to reinforce cell shapes and to another certain organelles.
12.1.5.3. Microtuble: Are straight hollow tubes composed of globular proteins called tubulins.
12.1.6. Cytoplasm "Lawns and Parks": Is a semi-fluid substance found inside the cell. It encases, cushions and protects the internal organelles.
12.1.7. Golgi Apparatus "Post Office": Is used for shipping those goods created by the ER and ribosomes to the rest of the cell.
12.1.8. Chloroplasts "Solar Energy Plant": Is ONLY found in the plant cells. They use sunlight to create energy for they city.
12.1.9. Mitochondria "Energy Plant": Are found BOTH plant and animals cells, its also the site of the cellular respiration. ATP is created which is used for the energy by the cell.
12.1.10. Lysosomes "Waste/Recycling": Are digestive sacs that can break down macromolecules in the cell using the process of hydrolysis.
12.1.11. Vacuoles and Vesicles "Warehouse, Water Tower" Have variety of functions as containment units for anything in excess in a city.
13. How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy (Ch.6)
13.1. LEO
13.1.1. LOST of electrons OXIDATION
13.2. GER
13.2.1. GAIN of electrons REDUCTION
13.3. Overall goal of Cellular Respiration
13.3.1. To make ATP
13.4. Chemical equation for cellular respiration
13.4.1. O2 is REDUCED to H2O
13.4.2. C6H12O6 is OXIDIZED to CO2
13.5. The phosphate group added to ADP comes from an organic
13.5.1. Substrate-level phosphorylation
13.6. The phosphate group added to ADP comes from INorganic phospahte
13.6.1. Oxidative Phophorylation
13.7. Stages of Cellular Respiration
13.7.1. 1.Glycolysis (cytoplasm)
13.7.1.1. Inputs: C6H1206, 2 ATP, NAD+
13.7.1.2. Outputs: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
13.7.1.2.1. 1B. Pyruvate processing
13.7.2. 2.Citric Acid Cycle (mitochondria)
13.7.2.1. Inputs: Acetyl Coenzyme
13.7.2.2. Outouts: CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH
13.7.3. 3.Oxidative Phosphorylation ( inner mitochondrial)
13.7.3.1. Inputs: Oxygen
13.7.3.2. Outputs: 28 ATP, 8 NADH, 4 FADH
14. The Working Cell (Ch.5)
14.1. Energy that is stored- such as the water in a dam.
14.1.1. Potential
14.2. Energy in motion- such as when that dam is released.
14.2.1. Kinetic
14.3. Laws Thermodynamics
14.3.1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed ONLY transferred or transformed.
14.3.2. Disorder is always increasing in the universe. This disorder is called Entropy.
14.4. Reactions occur when energy is RELEASED in chemical transformations
14.4.1. Exergonic
14.4.1.1. Catabolism
14.4.1.1.1. Metabolism: is the sum of all the chemical reactions in a cell
14.5. Reactions occur when energy is NEEDED for work to be done.
14.5.1. ENdergonic
14.5.1.1. Anabolism
14.6. The tendency for particles of any kinds to spread out evenly in an available space
14.6.1. Duffusion
14.7. When molecules move from an area of HIGH concentration to an area of LOWER concentration
14.7.1. Concentration Gradient
14.8. When a molecules diffuse across its membrane, such movement across a membrane is called?
14.8.1. Passive Transport
14.8.1.1. VS.
14.8.1.1.1. Active Transport
14.9. The liquid that solute is dissolved in
14.9.1. Solvent
14.9.1.1. VS.
14.9.1.1.1. Solutes