1. Intermolecular forces
2. London dispersion forces
2.1. Characteristics
2.1.1. Present in all molecules, especially non polar
2.1.2. Caused by temporary dipoles due to electron movement.
2.1.3. Weaker compared to other forces but cumulative effect is significant.
2.2. Examples
2.2.1. Common in noble gases (He, Ne).
2.2.2. Significant in large non polar molecules like hexane.
2.3. Applications
2.3.1. Affects boiling points higher in larger molecules.
2.3.2. Determines interactions in non-polar solvents.
3. Dipole dipole interactions
3.1. Characteristics
3.1.1. Occurs in polar molecules with permanent dipoles.
3.1.2. Strong, directional force between positive and negative ends of molecules.
3.1.3. Stronger in molecules with higher polarity.
3.2. Examples
3.2.1. Water (H2O) and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
3.2.2. Found in many organic molecules like formaldehyde.
3.3. Applications
3.3.1. Influences solubility; polar compounds dissolve in polar solvents.
3.3.2. Important in the stability of liquid mixtures like alcohol water.”
4. Hydrogen bonds
4.1. Characteristics
4.1.1. Special dipole interaction involving H with N, O, or F.
4.1.2. Very strong compared to other dipole interactions.
4.1.3. Causes higher boiling points and affects molecular structure.”
4.2. Examples
4.2.1. Found in water, DNA, and proteins.
4.2.2. Causes ice to have a lower density than liquid water.
4.3. Applications
4.3.1. Critical in biological systems for DNA stability and protein folding.
4.3.2. Essential for waters solvent properties dissolve many iconic substances
5. Solubility
5.1. Polar solubility
5.1.1. Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents (like dissolves like).
5.1.2. Water as a universal solvent for polar and ionic substances.
5.2. Non polar solubility
5.2.1. Non polar substances dissolve in non polar solvents.
5.2.2. Examples: oils in hexane or other non-polar solvents.
5.2.2.1. Applications in industry
5.2.2.1.1. Used in separating compounds in chemical processes.
6. Food industry applications
6.1. Emulsifiers
6.1.1. Lecithin and other substances help mix oil and water.
6.1.1.1. Used in products like mayonnaise and vinaigrettes.
6.1.1.1.1. Hydrogenation