1. Fundamental concepts
1.1. Linguistic sign - marker that carries info, direct, brief
1.1.1. SIGN-> Signifier -> word-> which signifies SIGN-> Signified - concept -> OBJEC
1.1.1.1. SIGNS MAKE UP THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF LANGUAGE
1.1.2. The relationship between word and concept they signify —> arbitrary, no logical reason
1.2. Substance -> Raw material -> Meaningless Form -> Particular Order -> Meaningful
1.2.1. Phonic -> Phonemes -> sounds -> /k, b , t/ (consonants)
1.2.1.1. Morphemes -> Letters -> -tion, -able Graphemes -> alphabets -> a, d , c
1.3. Element’s relationship
1.3.1. SYNTAGMATIC
1.3.1.1. Horizontal linear chain To form larger structures like phrases, sentences
1.3.2. PARADIGMATIC
1.3.2.1. Vertical linear chain One element can be replaced by another
1.4. SAPIR WHORF hypothesis Idea that lang has power and can control how you see the world - guide to your reality
1.4.1. Determenism - thinking about the world around us
1.4.2. Relativity - think differently (different languages)
2. World Languages
2.1. Language is used to refer to a single linguistic norm or group
2.1.1. Dialect is used to refer to one of the norms
2.1.1.1. Register subset of style which refers to the variation of language based on different social and contextual factors
2.1.1.1.1. Jargon - specialized terminology
2.2. STANDARDIZATION
2.2.1. Refers to process by which a lang has been codified in some way (grammar, spelling, dictionaries)
2.2.1.1. STANDARD is not = formal language, as it used also colloquially
2.3. PIDGIN
2.3.1. do not have native speakers, who do not share a common language
2.4. CREOLE
2.4.1. pidgin that was acquired by a group of speakers as a native language.
2.5. LECTS
2.5.1. distinct variety of language or any variation
2.6. Ebonics - «black speech»
2.6.1. Who prefer the term ebonics -> wish to highlight the African route of AfroAmerican speech
2.6.1.1. We will use ebonics without ideological or theoretical qualification
2.7. Politics can bring languages together as much as it can separate them
2.7.1. 7 dialects of Chinese - political factor
3. Syntax - Sentence patterns
3.1. Syntax is grammar that pertains to speaker knowledge of sentences
3.2. Constituency - the natural grouping in sentence
3.2.1. «Stand alone test»
3.2.1.1. «Replacement by pronoun»
3.2.1.1.1. «Move as unit»
3.3. SYNTACTIC CATEGORY
3.3.1. NOUN PHRASE
3.3.1.1. object of sentence, contain determiner, proper name, pronoun, or maybe noun alone
3.3.2. VERB PHRASE
3.3.2.1. must contain verb, may contain noun and prepositional phrase
3.4. Functional categories
3.4.1. Auxiliary: verbs: have, be, modals
3.4.1.1. Determiners: that this the
3.5. Lexical categories
3.5.1. Noun: puppy Verb: find Preposition: into Adjective: red Adverb: carefully
3.6. PHRASE STRUCTURE TREES
3.6.1. internal structure, syntactic category info
3.6.1.1. Every higher dominates beneath it = (S) dominates
3.6.1.2. Node immediately dominates categories directly below it
3.6.1.3. Declarative sentence - asserts particular situation exists
3.7. HISTORY OF WRITING
3.7.1. 3.200 before Christ: developed by Sumerians scribes in Uruk (Iraq): used clay tablets (Egyptian writing also appeared)
3.7.1.1. 600 before Christ - the Meso-american system emerged (North America -> Central America)
3.7.1.1.1. 1200 before Christ - the Chinese writing system appears, Shang Dynasty (oracle texts engraved on animal bones and turtle shell)
3.8. Writing system is related with rules such as conventions of spelling and punctuation
3.8.1. Orthography - alphabetic spelling
3.8.1.1. Alphabet - consonants and vowels Syllabaries - syllable, consonants Alphabets or Abjads
4. Psycholinguistics
4.1. Human Linguistic Creativity
4.1.1. Ability to: • Create and understand novel sentences. • Communicate thoughts through language. • Language = Primary communication system.
4.2. Language vs. Speech
4.2.1. Language: • Formal system pairing signals with meanings.
4.2.1.1. Speech: • Most common mode of language transmission. • Includes gestures (sign language) and writing.
4.2.1.1.1. Thought: • Independent from language (e.g., SLI, Williams Syndrome, Genie, Feral Children).
4.3. Brain and Language
4.3.1. Left: Language, practical thinking, rapid auditory processing.
4.3.2. Right: Creativity, holistic view, visual processing, intuition
4.4. Brain Structures:
4.4.1. Brainstem: Autonomic functions. • Cerebellum: Balance and coordination.
4.4.1.1. Occipital Lobe: Vision processing. • Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory, Wernicke’s area (language comprehension).
4.4.2. • Frontal Lobe: Problem-solving, Broca’s area (speech production).
4.4.3. • Parietal Lobe: Sensory integration.
4.5. Language in the Brain
4.5.1. Primary Motor Cortex: Muscle signals.
4.5.1.1. Arcuate Fasciculus: Connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
4.5.2. Broca’s Area: Speech articulation, grammar.
4.5.2.1. Angular Gyrus: Visual-auditory conversion.
4.5.3. Wernicke’s Area: Word comprehension, sentence formation.
4.5.3.1. Processes: • Speaking: Wernicke’s → Arcuate Fasciculus → Broca’s → Motor Cortex. • Reading: Visual Cortex → Angular Gyrus → Wernicke’s Area.
4.6. Language Disorders (Aphasia)
4.7. Applications of Psycholinguistics
4.7.1. Language acquisition and teaching.
4.7.1.1. Understanding cognitive disorders.
4.7.1.1.1. Enhancing communication technologies.
4.8. Broca’s Aphasia: Halting speech, effortful production, comprehension intact. • Wernicke’s Aphasia: Fluent but incoherent speech, poor comprehension. • Global Aphasia: Total loss of communication. • Conduction Aphasia: Difficulty repeating spoken language. • Anomic Aphasia: Word retrieval issues.
4.8.1. Other Types: • Motor and sensory transcortical aphasia. • Subcortical aphasia. • Jargon aphasia: Nonsense words. • Related Syndromes: • Alexia: Inability to process written language. • Foreign Accent Syndrome: Speech rhythm/vowel alterations.
5. Basic consepts of language
5.1. Functions of Language
5.1.1. •Personal: Express emotions, desires, and thoughts (e.g., love, sorrow).
5.1.1.1. • Interpersonal: Build social bonds (e.g., praise, invitations, apologies).
5.1.2. •Directive: Influence behavior (e.g., warnings, commands).
5.1.2.1. •Referential: Discuss objects, events, and time (past, present, future).
5.1.3. • Metalinguistic: Analyze or question language (e.g., “What does this word mean?”).
5.1.3.1. •Imaginative: Creative expression (e.g., poetry, stories).
5.2. Characteristics of Language
5.2.1. •Arbitrary: Signs have no inherent connection to their meaning.
5.2.1.1. •Vocal: Primarily auditory, supported by vocal organs.
5.2.2. •Symbolic: Uses symbols to represent concepts and objects
5.2.2.1. •Social: Language emerges and evolves in a social context.
5.2.3. •Productive: Infinite potential to form new expressions and meanings.
5.2.3.1. • Systematic: Governed by rules like grammar and syntax.
5.2.3.1.1. • Modality-Independent: Works across speech, writing, gestures, and Braille.
5.3. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
5.3.1. • Linguistic Determinism: Language shapes how people think.
5.3.1.1. • Linguistic Relativity: Differences in language influence perception and cognition.
5.4. Language is Arbitrary
5.4.1. • Signifier: The form (e.g., a sound, written word). • Signified: The idea or concept behind the sign.
5.4.1.1. Example: The word book and the physical object it represents.
5.4.1.1.1. • No Logical Connection: Meaning is established by cultural convention.
5.5. Sign, Signifier, Signified, and Symbol
5.5.1. • Sign: A combination of the signifier and the signified.
5.5.1.1. • Signifier: Physical or tangible (e.g., sound, image, or text).
5.5.1.2. • Signified: Abstract idea or meaning.
5.5.2. • Symbol: Requires learning and cultural understanding, unlike instinctual signs.
5.6. Language vs. Animal Communication
5.6.1. • Human language
5.6.1.1. • Open System: Can create unlimited new combinations.
5.6.1.1.1. • Grammar and Syntax: Enables complex and nuanced communication.
5.6.2. • Animal Communication:
5.6.2.1. • Fixed Reference: Limited to specific signals with fixed meanings.
5.6.2.1.1. • Examples: Vervet monkeys’ danger calls (chutter for snakes, rraup for eagles).
5.7. Key Linguistic Theories
5.7.1. • Ferdinand de Saussure:
5.7.1.1. •Langue vs. Parole: Saussure distinguished between the overall language system (langue), which includes the rules and structure shared by a community, and individual acts of speech (parole), which are how people actually use language in practice.
5.7.1.1.1. • Synchronic vs. Diachronic: He suggested studying language in two ways—synchronic, which looks at language at a specific moment in time, and diachronic, which examines how language changes over time.
5.7.2. •Noam Chomsky
5.7.2.1. • Competence vs. Performance: Chomsky explained that competence is a person’s knowledge of a language (like grammar and vocabulary), while performance is how they actually use it in real-life situations, which can include mistakes or slips.
5.7.2.1.1. • Universal Grammar: He believed that all humans are born with an inbuilt ability to learn language, which includes basic structures and rules shared by all languages.
6. The study of language variation
6.1. Types of Variation
6.1.1. Interspeaker Variation
6.1.1.1. Differences between speakers.
6.1.2. Intraspeaker Variation:
6.1.2.1. Differences within one speaker.
6.2. Sociolinguistics
6.2.1. Study of how language interacts with social factors. Understand socially motivated linguistic choices.
6.2.1.1. Gender
6.2.1.2. Ethnicity
6.2.1.3. Age
6.2.1.4. Social class
6.3. Dialects
6.3.1. Variations in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
6.3.1.1. Regional
6.3.1.1.1. Regional accents like British Received Pronunciation.
6.3.1.2. Social class
6.3.1.3. Occupational
6.3.1.4. Age
6.4. Registers
6.4.1. Stylistic variation depending on context and audience.
6.4.1.1. Frozen
6.4.1.1.1. Unchanging language (e.g., Constitution).
6.4.1.2. Formal
6.4.1.2.1. Academic or professional.
6.4.1.3. Consultive
6.4.1.3.1. Specialized knowledge or advice.
6.4.1.4. Casual
6.4.1.4.1. Friends and informal settings.
6.4.1.5. Intimate
6.4.1.5.1. Private or personal.
6.5. Diachronic vs. Synchronic Variation
6.5.1. Diachronic
6.5.1.1. Language change over time (e.g., Old English to Modern English).
6.5.2. Synchronic
6.5.2.1. Differences in the same language during the same time period (e.g., regional slang).
6.5.3. Additional Features of Language
6.5.3.1. • Descriptive and Comparative Linguistics: Study of languages’ structures and changes over time.
6.5.3.2. • Language as Social Behavior: Language is meaningful only within a social context.
6.5.3.3. • Productivity and Creativity: Human language is unique in its flexibility to invent new meanings.
7. Phonetics & Phonology
7.1. Phonetics: The Sounds of Language
7.1.1. Study of speech sounds.
7.1.1.1. Acoustic Phonetics:
7.1.1.1.1. Physical properties of sounds.
7.1.1.2. Auditory Phonetics:
7.1.1.2.1. Perception of sounds by listeners.
7.1.1.3. Articulatory Phonetics:
7.1.1.3.1. How sounds are produced.
7.2. Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
7.2.1. Problems with Spelling (Orthography):
7.2.1.1. Same sound = Many letters (e.g., see, key, machine).
7.2.1.2. Same letter = Many sounds (e.g., father, made).
7.2.1.3. Some letters = Not pronounced (e.g., lamb, knot).
7.2.1.4. No letter for some sounds (e.g., cute, use).
7.2.2. IPA Advantage:
7.2.2.1. • One-to-one correspondence between sounds and symbols.
7.2.2.2. • Universal pronunciation guide.
7.3. Articulatory Phonetics
7.3.1. Speech Production Components:
7.3.1.1. Glottis: Opening between vocal cords.
7.3.1.2. Larynx: Voice box
7.3.1.3. Pharynx: Throat above the larynx.
7.3.1.4. Oral/Nasal Cavities: Mouth and nose.
7.3.2. Sound Classifications:
7.3.2.1. Consonants: Restriction/closure in the vocal tract.
7.3.2.2. Vowels: Tongue height/position and lip rounding.
7.4. Consonants: Place of Articulation
7.4.1. Bilabials: [p], [b], [m] (both lips)
7.4.2. Labiodentals: [f], [v] (lip + upper teeth).
7.4.3. Interdentals: [θ], [ð] (tongue + teeth).
7.4.4. Alveolars: [t], [d], [n], [s], [z] (tongue + alveolar ridge).
7.4.5. Palatals: [ʃ], [ʒ] (front tongue + palate).
7.4.6. Velars: [k], [g] (back tongue + velum
7.4.7. Glottal: [h] (airflow through open glottis).
7.5. Consonants: Manner of Articulation
7.5.1. Voiceless vs. Voiced:
7.5.1.1. Voiceless: Vocal cords apart (e.g., [p], [t], [f]).
7.5.1.2. Voiced: Vocal cords vibrate (e.g., [b], [d], [v]).
7.5.2. Types of Sounds:
7.5.2.1. Stops: Complete airflow stop (e.g., [p], [b]).
7.5.2.2. Fricatives: Friction in airflow (e.g., [f], [v]).
7.5.2.3. Affricates: Stop + friction (e.g., [ʧ], [ʤ]).
7.5.2.4. Liquids: Minimal obstruction (e.g., [l], [r]).
7.5.2.5. Glides: Little obstruction (e.g., [j], [w]).
7.6. Vowels
7.6.1. Classification
7.6.1.1. Tongue height: High ([i], [u]), Mid ([e], [o]), Low ([æ], [a]).
7.6.1.2. Tongue position: Front ([i], [e]), Central ([ə], [ʌ]), Back ([u], [o]).
7.6.1.3. Lip shape: Rounded ([u], [o]) or unrounded.
7.6.2. Types
7.6.2.1. Diphthongs: Two vowel sounds ([aɪ], [aʊ]).
7.6.2.2. Monophthongs: Single pure vowel ([iː], [ʊ]).
7.7. Phonology: The Function of Sounds
7.7.1. Sound patterns and rules in a language.
7.7.1.1. Key concepts
7.7.1.1.1. Phoneme: Smallest sound unit distinguishing meaning (e.g., /p/ in pat vs. /b/ in bat).
7.7.1.1.2. Allophone: Variants of a phoneme (e.g., aspirated [ph] in pin vs. unaspirated [p] in spin).
7.7.1.2. Phonological Rules:
7.7.1.2.1. Assimilation: Sounds become similar (e.g., input → [ɪmpʊt]).
7.7.1.2.2. Deletion: Sounds are dropped (e.g., soften → [sɒfn̩]).
7.7.1.2.3. Metathesis: Sounds are reordered (e.g., ask → [æks]).
7.7.1.2.4. Flapping: /t/ or /d/ becomes [ɾ] (e.g., butter → [bʌɾər]).
8. Language classification
8.1. Types
8.1.1. Genetic
8.1.1.1. Groups languages with a shared ancestry (e.g., Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan).
8.1.2. Typological
8.1.2.1. Categorizes languages by structural characteristics (syntax, morphology, phonology).
8.2. BASIC LANGUAGE FACTS
8.2.1. Total languages (2000): 6,809.
8.2.1.1. Geographic distribution:
8.2.1.1.1. Americas: 1,013
8.2.1.1.2. Africa: 2,058
8.2.1.1.3. Asia: 2,197
8.2.1.1.4. Europe: 230
8.2.1.1.5. Pacific: 1,311
8.3. ENDANGERED LANGUAGES
8.3.1. • Half of the world’s languages are moribund (not passed to new generations).
8.3.2. • Likely less than 1,000 living languages in a century.
8.3.3. • Preservation: Documentation for future study and potential revival
8.4. TYPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
8.4.1. Morphological
8.4.1.1. Isolating: No inflections; relies on word order (e.g., Ancient Chinese).
8.4.1.2. Agglutinating: Morphemes added linearly (e.g., Turkish, Finnish).
8.4.1.3. Inflectional: Affixes convey multiple grammatical meanings (e.g., Russian, Spanish).
8.4.1.4. Polysynthetic: Long words combining many morphemes (e.g., Inuktitut, Navajo).
8.4.2. Syntactic
8.4.2.1. SOV (45%): Japanese, Korean.
8.4.2.2. SVO (42%): English, Mandarin.
8.4.2.3. VSO (9%): Classical Arabic.
8.4.2.4. VOS (3%): Malagasy.
8.4.2.5. OVS/OSV (<1%): Hixkaryana, Tobati.
8.4.3. Phonological
8.4.3.1. Tonal
8.4.3.1.1. Uses pitch to distinguish meaning (e.g., Mandarin, Yoruba).
8.4.3.2. Stress-Timed:
8.4.3.2.1. Unequal syllable length (e.g., English).
8.4.3.3. Syllable-Timed:
8.4.3.3.1. Equal syllable length (e.g., Spanish).
8.4.3.4. Consonant Clusters:
8.4.3.4.1. Complex combinations (e.g., English, Russian).
8.5. LEAD SCHOLARS
8.5.1. Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829)
8.5.1.1. Comparative Indo-European linguistics.
8.5.2. August Schlegel (1767-1845)
8.5.2.1. Sanskrit analysis, structural relationships.
8.5.3. Wilhelm von Humboldt(1767-1835)
8.5.3.1. Morphological classification, linguistic relativity.
9. Introduction to linguistics
9.1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of syntax, morphology, phonology and phonetics. Specific branches of linguistics include sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, comparative and structurallinguistic.
9.1.1. “A language is a system of a.rbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” - B.Bloch and G.Trager.
9.1.2. “A language is a system of a.rbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” - B.Bloch and G.Trager.
9.1.3. Language is a system of phonetics, grammar and vocabulary and complex as organs of the human body, exclusively human property.
9.1.4. System of communication - based upon words and the combination of words into sentences.
9.1.5. Language – is an exclusively human property.
9.1.6. Non-linguistic ways of communication are non verbal ways of communication.
9.1.7. “Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.” - Henry Sweet.
9.2. Branches
9.2.1. Micro
9.2.1.1. Phonetics (scientific study of speech sounds)
9.2.1.2. Phonology (study of how speech sounds function in a language)
9.2.1.3. Morphology (study of the formation of words)
9.2.1.4. Syntax (combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences)
9.2.1.5. Semantics (study of meaning in all its formal aspects.)
9.2.1.6. Pragmatics (study of language in use.)
9.2.2. Macro
9.2.2.1. Inter Disciplinary
9.2.2.1.1. Sociolinguistics (relationship between language and society.)
9.2.2.1.2. Psycholinguistics (study of Language and mind)
9.2.2.1.3. Neurolinguistics (study of language processing and language representation in the brain.)
9.2.2.1.4. Stylistics (literary effects can be related to linguistic features.)
9.2.2.2. Intra Disciplinary
9.2.2.2.1. Computational (computational modelling of natural language)
9.2.2.2.2. Cognitive (approach to the analysis of natural language)
9.2.2.2.3. Applied (application of linguistic theories, methods)
9.2.2.2.4. Discourse (relationship between language and the contexts)
10. Semantic and Pragmatics
10.1. Aspects of linguistic meaning
10.1.1. Denotation: primary, literal, or dictionary meaning of a word. It refers to the specific, objective reference of a term.
10.1.2. Connotation: secondary or associated meaning of a word, often carrying emotional or cultural nuances.
10.1.3. Sense: Sense refers to the way in which a word is understood in a particular context. It involves the meaning of a word as it is used in various linguistic expressions and situations.
10.1.4. Reference: Reference is the relationship between words and the entities or concepts they represent in the real world.
10.1.5. Semantics: Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It explores how words and expressions convey meaning and how meaning is constructed and interpreted in different linguistic contexts.
10.1.5.1. Also called semiotics, semology, or semasiology
10.1.5.2. Concerns how meaning is constructed and conveyed through signs, words, phrases, or sentences.
10.1.5.3. Examples:
10.1.5.3.1. Slang: form of creative and informal language that includes words, phrases, and acronyms used in a particular context. It often has multiple meanings and can carry underlying connotations based on the context in which it is being used.
10.1.5.3.2. Idioms: expressions whose literal meaning diverges from what they mean when used in common speech.
10.1.5.3.3. Metaphors: figures of speech that compare two things without using comparison terms such as like or as.
10.1.5.3.4. Irony: refers to when someone says one thing but means another, often conveying implied criticism or sarcasm towards someone or something else
10.1.5.3.5. Hyperbole: a figure of speech that deliberately exaggerates something beyond reality for effect. It is typically used to emphasize a point or make an impression upon listeners/readers while generally remaining true despite exaggeration.
10.1.5.3.6. Sarcasm: a type of irony where the speaker intends to convey the opposite meaning of what is said. It is often used to mock or criticize someone by suggesting the opposite of what is being said.
10.1.5.3.7. Emojis: small symbols used to replace words inside digital conversations. These symbols tend to take on different interpretations depending on how they’re viewed from person to person.
10.1.5.3.8. Colloquialisms: These are words or phrases used in informal conversation but not typically found in formal, written text.
10.1.5.3.9. Synonyms: These are different words with the same or similar meanings.
10.1.5.3.10. Antonyms: These are words that have opposite meanings.
10.1.5.3.11. Homonyms: These are words that are spelled and pronounced the same way but have different meanings
10.1.5.3.12. Homophones: These are words that sound the same when pronounced but have different meanings and may have different spellings.
10.1.5.3.13. Polysemy: This refers to words that have multiple related meanings. For instance, “head” can refer to the top part of a body, the person in charge, or the front of a line.
10.1.5.3.14. Analogy: Analogies make a comparison between two things for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
10.1.5.3.15. Pun: a type of wordplay that exploits words with multiple definitions or similar sounds to create humour or suggest various layers of interpretation.
10.1.5.3.16. Taboo Language: These are words and phrases that are generally considered inappropriate or offensive in certain contexts.
10.1.5.3.17. Connotation: This refers to the emotional or cultural associations that a word carries with it, beyond its dictionary definition.
10.1.5.3.18. Euphemism: A euphemism is a figure of speech that replaces a word, phrase, or idea that indirectly conveys a concept that might make others uncomfortable.
10.1.6. Pragmatics is concerned with our understanding of language in context. The meanings beyond words.
10.1.6.1. Key focus areas:
10.1.6.1.1. Speaker meaning: What the speaker intends to communicate.
10.1.6.1.2. Contextual meaning: How context affects the interpretation of the message.
10.1.6.1.3. Implicit meaning: How listeners interpret implied meanings.
10.1.6.1.4. Politeness and social rules: How social norms affect language use.
10.1.7. Difference Between Semantics and Pragmatics
10.1.7.1. Semantics focuses on the literal meaning of words and sentences.
10.1.7.2. Pragmatics focuses on how meaning is constructed in interaction, considering factors such as speaker intent and context.
11. Historical
11.1. MAJOR LANGUAGE FAMILIES
11.1.1. Indo-European (e.g., English, Hindi, Russian, Spanish). Sir William Jones proposed Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, shared a common ancestry Proto-Indo-European.
11.1.2. Sino-Tibetan (e.g., Mandarin Chinese, Tibetan)
11.1.3. Afro-Asiatic (e.g., Arabic, Hebrew)
11.1.4. Niger-Congo (e.g., Swahili, Yoruba)
11.1.5. Altaic (Turkic and Mongolic languages)
11.2. Why language changes?
11.2.1. Internal
11.2.1.1. Changes originating from the language structure itself
11.2.2. External
11.2.2.1. Social, cultural, and geographical influences, including language contact
11.2.3. Types
11.2.3.1. Phonological Change: The way words are pronounced changes over time.
11.2.3.2. Syntactical Change: The rules for how sentences are put together can shift.
11.2.3.3. Semantic Change: Words can change their meanings.
11.2.3.4. Lexical Change: New words are borrowed or invented, and old words fade away
11.3. Comparative Methods
11.3.1. Collection of Cognates: Look for words that are similar in form and meaning across languages
11.3.2. Sound Correspondence: Work out the patterns in how sounds have shifted between languages
11.3.3. Reconstruction: By comparing cognates and sound changes, we can guess what the original word looked like in the ancestor language
11.3.4. Classification: Once we know how languages are related, we can map out their family tree, just like you would with your own ancestry
11.4. Language convergence occurs when languages come into contact and influence each other, often resulting in shared features.
11.5. Language divergence occurs when languages split from a common ancestor and become distinct over time. This happens due to geographical separation, social isolation, or cultural differences.
11.6. Dialect and Standartization
11.6.1. Dialect - regional or social varieties. Differ in terms of phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon.
11.6.2. Standardization - process by which a particular dialect or language variety becomes the "standard" for education, media, and government.
11.7. Types of sounds change
11.7.1. Assimilation: Sounds become more like their neighbours.
11.7.2. Dissimilation: A sound becomes less like its neighbouring sound.
11.7.3. Metathesis: Two sounds switch places.
11.7.4. Deletion: A sound disappears altogether.
11.8. Pidgen and Creols
11.8.1. Pidgins are simplified languages that blend elements from the languages of the people involved, who don’t share a common language
11.8.2. If a pidgin sticks around long enough and children begin learning it as their first language, it can evolve into a creole. Creoles are fully developed languages with their own grammar and vocabulary.
11.9. KEY CONCEPTS TO THEORIES
11.9.1. Grimm’s Law: Describes how certain sounds shifted in Germanic languages
11.9.2. Verner’s Law: Explains some exceptions to Grimm’s Law by looking at stress patterns in words.
11.9.3. Wave Theory: Language changes can spread like waves, affecting some languages or dialects before others.
11.9.4. Family Tree Model: Visualizes how languages are related and evolve over time.
12. Morphology
12.1. Fromkin & Rodman:"Morphology is the study of word formation and internal structure of words. The main idea of morphology is as a component of grammar that deals with the internal structure of words and also relates to the internal structure of complex words."
12.2. Mental dictionary:
12.2.1. Pronunciation
12.2.2. Meaning
12.2.3. Orthography (spelling)
12.2.4. Grammatical category
12.3. Content Words and Function Words
12.3.1. Content words: the words that convey conceptual meaning (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.)
12.3.2. Function words: the words that convey grammatical meaning (articles, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.)
12.4. Morphology: the study of the structure of words and the rules for word formation .
12.5. Morpheme: the smallest units of meaning.
12.5.1. Morphemes can be words on their own, and/or can often be combined with other morphemes to make words.
12.5.2. Discreteness: In all languages, sounds combine to make morphemes, morphemes combine to make words, and words combine to make sentences.
12.5.3. Creativity: We can combine morphemes in new ways to create new words that can easily be understood.
12.5.4. Free morphemes: can stand alone. (ex. love)
12.5.5. Bound morphemes: cannot stand alone, and must be attached to other morphemes. (ex. -un)
12.5.5.1. Suffixes: bound morphemes that attach to the end of a root.
12.5.5.2. Prefixes: bound morphemes that attach to the beginning of a root.
12.5.5.3. Infixes: morphemes that are inserted inside a root.
12.5.5.4. Roots: the morpheme base upon which other morphemes are attached to create complex
12.5.5.5. Stems: once an affix has been attached to a root, the result is called a stem to which more morphemes may be attached: unlovable.
12.5.5.6. Bound roots: Roots that cannot stand alone and can only occur in combination with other morphemes.
12.6. Word formation in English language refers to the processes by which new words are created. There are several ways that new words can be formed in English.
12.6.1. Borrowing Taking over words from other languages.
12.6.2. Coinage Process of inventing a new word from scratch or new words base on the names of persons or place.
12.6.3. Compounding Process of combining two or more words to create a new word.
12.6.4. Clipping When a word with more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form.
12.6.5. Blending Process of combining parts of two or more words to create a new word
12.6.6. Backformation A word of one type ( usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type ( usually a verb).
12.6.7. Conversion Change in the function of the word without any reduction.
12.6.8. Calque Word-for-word translation of a phrase borrowed from another language.
12.6.9. Acronym New words formed from initial letters to set of other words.
12.6.10. Onomatopoeia Creating words from the sound they represent.
12.6.11. Derivation Process of adding prefix and suffix to an existing word to create a new word with a different meaning.
13. Language acquisition
13.1. Process of acquiring a language, usually due to immersion
13.2. The study of language acquisition
13.2.1. First-language acquisition (native language).
13.2.1.1. Language acquisition begins well before a child is born. They make a well-de!ned distinction between their mother’s voice and others
13.2.1.2. Perception and production of speech sounds
13.2.1.2.1. Infants display an ability to discriminate and recognize speech sounds. Born with the ability to perceive and focus on the sounds that are important for language, so they can learn any human language
13.2.1.3. The study of child language acquisition is the study of the processes by which children learn a language.
13.2.1.3.1. Four main stages
13.2.1.3.2. Language acquisition begins well before a child is born. Babies are more sensitive to their own native languages than foreign ones, and also make a well-defined distinction between their mother’s voice and others
13.2.1.4. The acquisition of pragmatics
13.2.1.4.1. Deixis:
13.2.1.5. The acquisition of sign language
13.2.1.5.1. Deaf babies acquire sign language in the same way that hearing babies acquire spoken language
13.2.1.5.2. When deaf babies are not exposed to sign language, they will create their own signs, complete with systematic rules
13.2.1.6. Theories of language acquisition
13.2.1.6.1. Cognitive theory suggests that children go through stages of language development.
13.2.1.6.2. Behavioural theory, often called 'Imitation Theory', suggests that people are a product of their environment
13.2.1.6.3. Nativist theory, sometimes referred to as the 'innateness theory', was "rst proposed by Noam Chomsky.
13.2.1.6.4. Interactionist theory emphasises the importance of caregivers in child language acquisition.
13.2.1.6.5. Halliday`s function of language
13.2.2. Bilingual language acquisition (learning two native languages).
13.2.2.1. Simultaneous bilingualism refers to the acquisition of two languages simultaneously from infancy
13.2.2.1.1. Unitary system hypothesis: the idea that the child initially constructs only one lexicon and one grammar
13.2.2.1.2. Separate systems hypothesis: the idea that the child builds a distinct lexicon and grammar for each language
13.2.2.2. Bilingual children tend to have better metalinguistic awareness than monolingual speakers
13.2.3. Second-language acquisition (learning a foreign language)
13.2.3.1. Fundamental difference hypothesis: learning a second language is a different process than learning a first language
13.2.3.1.1. L2 learners do demonstrate rule-governed interlanguage grammars
13.2.3.1.2. Learners often transfer phonological, syntactic, and morphological rules from their "rst language to their second language
13.2.3.2. Heritage language learners constitute a unique type of adult language learner
13.2.3.2.1. Someone who was raised with a strong cultural connection to a language and who then chooses to study that language more formally