LINGUISTICS

1. Located at lower central back of brain, Its primary function is the: Processing, integration, interpretation of VISION

2. Touching, Two major divisions: Anterior and posterior •Senses hot and cold, hard and soft, and pain •Taste and smell •Helps integrate the senses

3. universal grammar, theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related to the acquisition of language

4. We can select only one element from a class of similar elements • A particular consonant from same class • A noun from a class of nouns

5. 1.linguistics-is the scientific study of language and its structure

5.1. linguistics

5.1.1. microlinguistics

5.1.1.1. phonetics (8)

5.1.1.1.1. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.

5.1.1.1.2. Consonants

5.1.1.1.3. Orthography

5.1.1.1.4. Vowels

5.1.1.2. phonology

5.1.1.2.1. Study of how speech sounds function in a language

5.1.1.3. morphology

5.1.1.3.1. study of the formation of words,grammar of words

5.1.1.4. syntax

5.1.1.4.1. deals with the combination of words into phrases,clauses,sentences.

5.1.1.5. semantics

5.1.1.5.1. study of meaning in all its formal aspects

5.1.1.6. pragmatics

5.1.1.6.1. study of language in use

5.1.2. macrolinguistics

5.1.2.1. interdisciplinary

5.1.2.1.1. sociolinguistics

5.1.2.1.2. psycholinguistics (12)

5.1.2.1.3. neurolinguistics

5.1.2.1.4. stylistics

5.1.2.1.5. computational

5.1.2.1.6. corpus

5.1.2.2. intradisciplinary

5.1.2.2.1. applied

5.1.2.2.2. theoretical

5.1.2.2.3. historical (4)

5.1.2.2.4. Descriptive

5.1.2.2.5. Comparative

5.2. language

5.2.1. an exlusively human property

5.2.2. system of system

5.2.2.1. language is system of phonetics, grammar,vocabulary which in themselves are systems

5.3. linguistic communication

5.3.1. verbal communication

5.3.1.1. communication by means of language

5.3.2. non-verbal communication

5.3.2.1. non lingistic ways of communication

6. 3.Fundamental concepts of Linguistics

6.1. Linguistic sign

6.1.1. It is a physical marker that carries some information

6.1.1.1. The signifier

6.1.1.1.1. the word which signifies

6.1.1.2. The signified

6.1.1.2.1. the concept,the object

6.2. Symbol

6.2.1. A kind of sign that signifies several concepts on the basis of the primary relationship of signifier/signified

6.3. Substance&Form

6.3.1. Form is the associative order in which elements are brought together in a meaningful way

6.3.1.1. Phonic

6.3.1.1.1. Phonemes

6.3.1.2. Graphic

6.3.1.2.1. Morphemes

6.3.1.2.2. Graphemes

6.4. The phonological system

6.4.1. Word structure

6.4.1.1. An ordered composition of many elements/parts

6.4.1.1.1. Process of selection

6.4.1.1.2. Process of combination

6.4.1.1.3. Orchestra

6.5. "Plato's Problem"

6.5.1. Plato`s problem is the problem of finding an explanation for how a child acquires language though the child does not receive explicit instructions and the primary linguistic data a child does receive is limited

6.6. universal grammar

6.7. Sapir Whorf hypothesis

6.7.1. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis revolves around the idea that language has power and can control how you see the world. Language is a guide to your reality, structuring your thoughts. It provides the framework through which you make sense of the world.

7. 2.Basic Concepts of Linguistics

7.1. Functions of Language

7.1.1. Personal

7.1.1.1. unables the user of a language to express his innermost thoughts

7.1.2. Interpersonal

7.1.2.1. enables him to establish and maintain good social relations with individuals and groups

7.1.3. Directive

7.1.3.1. enables humans to control the behaviour of others through advice, warnings, orders

7.1.4. Referential

7.1.4.1. enables humans to talk about objects or events in the immediate setting or environment

7.1.5. Metalinguistics

7.1.5.1. its function enables humans to talk about language

7.1.6. Imaginative

7.1.6.1. enables humans to use language creatively in composing poetry, writing

7.2. Saussure's approach

7.2.1. Langue

7.2.1.1. represents the "work of a collective intelligence" which is both internal to each individual and collective

7.2.2. Parole

7.2.2.1. designates individual acts, statements, utterances ,events of language use manisesting his "phonation"-the formal aspects of the utterance

7.3. Diachronic Approach

7.3.1. considers the development and evolution of a language through history.

7.4. Synchronic Approach

7.4.1. considers a language at a moment in time without taking its history into account.

7.5. Descriptive Linguistics

7.5.1. the scientific endeavor to systematically describe the languages of the world in their diversity, based on the empirical observation of regular patterns in natural speech

7.6. Comparative Linguistics

7.6.1. The branch of linguistics that involves comparing the structures and vocabularies of different languages.

7.7. Historical Linguistics

7.7.1. The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of phonological, grammatical, and semantic changes.

8. 5.Sociolinguistics

8.1. Sociolinguistics is concerned with how language use interacts with, or is affected by, social factors such as gender, ethnicity, age or social class, for instance.

8.1.1. Language Variation

8.1.1.1. Interspeaker

8.1.1.1.1. Variation between languages, dialects, and speakers

8.1.1.2. Intraspeaker

8.1.1.2.1. Variation within the language of a single speaker

8.1.1.3. Dialect

8.1.1.3.1. variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. It can also refer to a language subordinate in status to a dominant language, and is sometimes used to mean a vernacular language.

8.1.1.4. Register

8.1.1.4.1. the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances

9. 6.WORLD LANGUAGES

9.1. There are around 7000 languages in the world,it is very difficult to know exactly how many languages we have

9.2. mutual intelligebility

9.2.1. when 2 people understand each other when they speak, sometimes it is very difficult to know when language stops and dialect begins

9.3. political factors

9.3.1. when government wants to separate from each other they sometimes do that through language

9.3.1.1. urdu and hindi are considered different languages because of political factors.

9.3.1.1.1. the hindi is spoken inn india uses devanagari script

9.3.2. politics can bring languages together

9.3.2.1. the 7 dialects of chinese are considered dialects, these are languages that have diverged millemium ago

9.4. resources and records

9.4.1. we know more about some languages than others because they are not visible on social media

9.5. language varities

9.5.1. language is used to refer to a single linguistic norm or to a group of norms

9.5.2. dialect is ued to refer to one of the norms

9.5.3. style -manner in which language is used to convey information ,express ideaa

9.5.4. register -subset of style which refers to the variation of language based on social and contextual factors

9.5.5. genre-refers to different categories or types of spoken,written communication

9.5.6. jargon-specialized terminolgy

9.6. standardization

9.6.1. process by which a language has been codified in some way (grammar,spelling books,dictionaries)

9.6.2. standardized language is taught both native and non native speakers

9.6.3. selection of onebstandard implies accepting one vernecular and abondoning others

9.6.4. diversity and variety are natural to all languages

9.6.5. language lives its life in the society, what society acccepts will stay in the language(s curve model)

9.7. standard english according to trudgill

9.7.1. usually used in print

9.7.1.1. normally taught in schools

9.7.1.1.1. learnt by non natuve speakers

9.8. pidgin

9.8.1. speech forms which do not have native speakers and are used as means of communication among people who dont share a common langauge

9.8.1.1. the nigerian pidgin, ghanian, gambian, kamtok in cameroon

9.9. creole

9.9.1. pidgin that was acquired by a group of speakers as a native language

9.9.1.1. Jamaican `patois

9.10. non-creole

9.10.1. non creole languages assumed to have emerged gradually

9.10.1.1. Archaic latin-classical latin-vulgar latin-pld french-middle french-modern french

9.10.1.1.1. some stages of this development involved radical changes than others

9.11. distribution of pidgin and creoles

9.11.1. wutun dialect of qinghai province in china (mix of amdo tibetan-kansu mongol-chinese)-2500 speakers in 5 villages

9.11.1.1. pidgin russian spoken in harbin, Manchuria between russians and chinese disappeared when russians left in fifties

9.12. lects-

9.12.1. a disctinct variety of language ,any variation in language

9.12.1.1. regional dialect

9.12.1.1.1. a variety spoken in a particular region

9.12.1.2. sociolect

9.12.1.2.1. a variety of language used by socioeconomic class, a profession, age group,any other soical group

9.12.1.3. entholect

9.12.1.3.1. a lect spoken by specific enthic group

9.12.1.4. idiolect

9.12.1.4.1. language spoken by each individual

9.13. how languages die?

9.13.1. India does not recognize languages with fewer than 10.000 speakers

9.13.1.1. there are 400 such languages

9.13.2. in Canada and AMERICA, residental schools aimed to stop kids from spealing thier native languages, encourage them to speak english instead

9.13.3. sometimes parents do not teach thier native language to thier kids

9.13.3.1. this can lead to the language dying out in the next generation

10. 7.Morphology and word formation in english language

10.1. What is morphology?

10.1.1. morphology is the study of word formation and internal structure of words

10.2. The Words of Language

10.2.1. We all have a mental dictionary of all the words we know, which includes the following information:

10.2.1.1. Pronunciation

10.2.1.2. Meaning

10.2.1.3. Orthography (spelling)

10.2.1.4. Grammatical category

10.3. Content words & Function words

10.3.1. Content words: the words that convey conceptual meaning (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc)

10.3.2. Function words: the words that convey grammatical meaning (articles, prepositions, conjunctions, etc)

10.4. Morphemes

10.4.1. the smallest units of meaning

10.4.1.1. Bound morphemes

10.4.1.1.1. cannot stand alone, and must be attached to other morphemes. E.g. un- and -ish are bound morphemes because they cannot stand alone

10.4.1.2. Free morphemees

10.4.1.2.1. can stand alone. E.g. love is a single morpheme that can be uttered with no other morphemes connected to it

10.4.1.3. Roots and stems

10.4.1.3.1. Roots

10.4.1.3.2. Stems

10.5. What is word formation

10.5.1. Word formation in English language refers to the processes by which new words are created.There are several ways that new words can be formed in English

10.5.1.1. Borrowing

10.5.1.1.1. Borrowing is taking over words fromother languages.Example: Latin: Interim, memorandum, agenda, and a.m., p.m., sponsor

10.5.1.2. Coinage

10.5.1.2.1. This is the process of inventing a new word from scratch or new words base on the names of persons or place. Example: volt (Alessandro Volt, Italian), Watt (James Watt, Scot scientist)

10.5.1.3. Compounding

10.5.1.3.1. This is the process of combining two or more words to create a new word.Ex: Fireman,toothbrush

10.5.1.4. Clipping

10.5.1.4.1. This is when a word with more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form. Ex: Gas (Gasoline),Fan (Fanatic)

10.5.1.5. Blending

10.5.1.5.1. This is the process of combining parts of two or more words to create a new word.Example: -Brunch- Breakfast+Lunch

10.5.1.6. Backformation

10.5.1.6.1. In backformation, a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb) *Televise- television, *opt- option

10.5.1.7. Conversion

10.5.1.7.1. Conversion is a change in the function of the word without any reduction Example: -Noun to a verb-butter=to butter -Verb to a noun-to spy=a spy

10.5.1.8. Acronyms

10.5.1.8.1. Acronym are new words formed from initial letters to set of other words Examples: -CD (Compact disk) -VCR (Video cassette recorder)

10.5.1.9. Calque

10.5.1.9.1. Word-for-word translation of a phrase borrowed from another language Example: q Perros calientes- dog hot>hot dog (Spanish)

10.5.1.10. Onomatopoeia

10.5.1.10.1. This is creating words from the sound they represent Example: -Buzz -Hiss -Sizzle

10.5.1.11. Derivation

10.5.1.11.1. This is the process of adding prefix and suffix to an existing word to create a new word with a different meaning. Example: -able -sive -ant

11. 9.Syntax (The Sentence Patterns of Language) and Writing System

11.1. Syntax

11.1.1. is the grammar that pertains to a speaker’s knowledge of sentences and their structures

11.1.1.1. Constituents & Constituency Tests

11.1.1.1.1. Constituents are the natural groupings in a sentence. Tests for constituency include:

11.1.1.2. Syntactic Categories

11.1.1.2.1. A syntactic category is a family of expressions that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.All the underlined groups constitute a syntactic category known as a noun phrase (NP) All the bolded groups constitute a syntactic category known as a verb phrase (VP)

11.1.1.3. Phrase Structure Trees

11.1.1.3.1. Phrase structure (PS) trees show the internal structure of a sentence along with syntactic category information

11.1.1.4. Writing System

11.1.1.4.1. History of Writing

11.1.1.5. Alphabets

11.1.1.5.1. Alphabets or phonemic alphabets are sets of letters that represent consonants and vowels, each letter or cobination of letters represents one sound, while others such as English letters might represent a variety of sounds, or the same sounds can be written in different ways.

12. 10.SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS

12.1. Aspects Linguistic meaning

12.1.1. Denotation

12.1.1.1. primary,literal,dictionary meaning of a word.It refers to the specific,objective reference of a term

12.1.2. Connotation

12.1.2.1. the secondary or associated meaning of a word,carrying emotional,cultural nuances

12.1.3. Sense

12.1.3.1. the way in which a wors is understood in a particular context

12.1.4. Reference

12.1.4.1. the relationship between words and the entities or concepts thay represent in the real world

12.1.5. Semantics

12.1.5.1. the study of meaning in language.It explores how words and expressions convey meaning and how meaning is constructed and ibterpreted in different linguistic contexts

12.1.5.1.1. also called semiotics,semology, semasiology

12.1.6. Pragmatics

12.1.6.1. study of how language is used in context to convey meaning beyond what is explicitly stated.It examines the relationship between the speaker,listener,the context in which language is used

12.1.6.2. Key focus areas of pragmatics

12.1.6.2.1. speaker meaning

12.1.6.2.2. contextual meaning

12.1.6.2.3. implicit meaning

12.1.6.2.4. politeness and social rules

12.2. History of linguistic meaning

12.2.1. in the first decades pf the 20th century, it became on of the central concerns of philosophy in English speaking world.

12.2.1.1. from the middle of the 19th century onword, the formal study reasoning ,underwent a period of growth unparalled since the time of Aristotle

12.3. difference between semantics and pragmatics

12.3.1. semantics-focuses on the literal meaning of words and sentences

12.3.2. pragmatics-focusues on how meaning is constructed in interaction,considering factors such as speaker intent and context

13. 11.Language classification

13.1. Genetic classification

13.1.1. Genetic classification is a group of languages descended from a common ancestral language, e.g., Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan

13.2. Typological classification

13.2.1. Typological classification is categorization based on structural characteristics rather than ancestry or geography. Examines syntax, morphology, phonology, etc.,so this the grouping of languages with similar structures

13.2.1.1. Morphological

13.2.1.1.1. Isolating languages

13.2.1.1.2. Agglutinating languages

13.2.1.1.3. Inflectional languages

13.2.1.1.4. Polysynthetic languages

13.2.1.2. Syntactic

13.2.1.2.1. Basic words orders

13.2.1.3. Phonological

13.2.1.3.1. In linguistics, phonological classification organizes languages based on their sound systems, including aspects like phoneme inventory, syllable structure, tonal properties, and stress patterns

13.2.2. LEAD SCHOLARS

13.2.2.1. Frederick Schlegel(1772-1829)

13.2.2.1.1. German philosopher, critic, and a key figure in early Romanticism. His primary contribution to typology and linguistics was through his comparative studies of Indo-European languages.Schlegel emphasized the importance of grammatical structure over vocabulary in understanding language relationships, which later became a fundamental concept in linguistic typology

13.2.2.2. August Schlegel(1772-1845)

13.2.2.2.1. Friedrich's elder brother, contributed to comparative linguistics and was instrumental in popularizing the idea of Indo-European languages. He focused on the formal study of Sanskrit, translating and analysing texts to highlight structural relationships among Indo-European languages. His emphasis on structural and morphological characteristics over vocabulary influenced typological approaches by promoting the classification of languages based on syntax and morphology

13.2.2.3. Wilhelm von Humboldt(1767- 1835)

13.2.2.3.1. Wilhelm von Humboldt, a German philosopher, linguist, and statesman, is widely regarded as a foundational figure in linguistic typology.Humboldt proposed that languages differ not only in sounds and vocabulary but also in their worldview and structure, an idea later encapsulated as linguistic relativity. He introduced the concept of language typology by categorizing languages based on morphological structure, such as isolating, agglutinative,and inflectional languages

13.3. Syntactic classification

13.4. Languages:basic facts

13.4.1. According to Ethnologue database, in the year 2000 there were a total of 6,809 living languages in the world

13.4.2. Many of the 6,000-odd "living" languages cited in Ethnologue are endangered or nearly extinct

13.5. Tonal languages

13.5.1. Tonal languages use pitch to distinguish meaning between words. A change in tone can completely change the word's meaning, as each syllable can have distinct tones

13.6. Stress-timed vs syllable timed languages

13.6.1. Stress-timed languages

13.6.1.1. Stress-timed languages have stressed syllables at roughly regular intervals, causing non-stressed syllables to be shortened. English is a stress-timed language, where stress patterns affect the rhythm, leading to compressed, unstressed syllables (e.g."What are you going to do?" sounds like "Whatcha gonna do?" in casual speech)

13.6.2. Syllable timed languages

13.6.2.1. Syllable-timed languages have syllables that are roughly equal in duration, regardless of stress.Spanish is syllable-timed, where each syllable has a relatively equal duration, creating a more rhythmic and evenly paced sound

13.7. Consonant cluster languages

13.7.1. Languages that permit clusters of consonants within a syllable, often at the beginning or end, have complex consonant phonotactics. Examples: English: English allows clusters such as spl in split or str in street, as well as consonant clusters at the end of words, like texts. Russian: Russian allows complex consonant clusters, especially in words like vzglyad (взгляд,"glance")

14. 13. Language Acquisition

14.1. Language acquisition refers to the process of acquiring a language, usually due to immersion (i.e. hearing the language often and in everyday contexts). Most of us acquire our native language just from being around others such as our parents

14.1.1. First language Acquisition

14.1.1.1. your native language, child language acquisition

14.1.2. Bilingual language Acquisition

14.1.2.1. learning two native languages

14.1.3. Second-language Acquisition

14.1.3.1. learning a foreign language

14.2. Child Language Acquisition

14.2.1. Pre-Birth

14.2.1.1. They can make a well-defined distinction between their mother's voices and the others

14.2.2. Babbling

14.2.2.1. At this stage, infants begin to explore the properties of sounds through production. The sounds of early babbling are universal. However, by the time a child reaches the age of 8 months, a drift occurs in the characteristics of babbling (Helms-Park, 2018). Babbling becomes more distinctive. Infants begin to make sounds that would only occur in their own native languages

14.2.2.1.1. one consonant and a vowel at a time

14.2.2.1.2. reduplicative babbling

14.2.2.1.3. non-reduplicative babbling

14.2.3. One Word Stage

14.2.3.1. During this stage, children begin to acquire and produce real words of their native languages. A child in this stage will use single-word constructions to communicate. The use of single-word items is meant to convey full sentences provided the context. Usually, children go through a holophrastic stage, where their one-word utterances may convey more meaning – up used to indicate something in the sky or to mean “pick me up”

14.2.4. Two word stage 1,5-2 years old

14.2.4.1. children usually enter this stage when they have acquired about 50 words,they begin to demonstrate knowledge of the word order

14.2.5. Telegrphic Stage 2-2,5 years old

14.2.5.1. children experience a vocabulary spurt or explosion,primarily communicate with content words

14.2.6. After telegraphic stage 2,6+ years old

14.2.6.1. complete sentences began to emerge,imperative and declarative sentences appear first.

14.2.6.1.1. coordination (acquired first) and subordianation sentences appear early in this stage

15. The acquistion of pragmatics

15.1. Deixis

15.1.1. Chuldren ofthen have problenms with the shifting refernence of pronouns

15.1.1.1. chikdren may refer to themselves"you"

15.1.2. problems with the context-dependent nature of deictic words

15.1.2.1. children often assume the hearer whos is talking about

16. the acquistion of sign language

16.1. deaf bebaies acquire sign langauge in the ame way that hearign babies acquire spoken language

16.2. when deaf babies are not exposed to sign langauge, they will create their own signs,with systematic rules

16.3. every child is unique and different

17. theories of language acquistion

17.1. cognitive theory

17.1.1. that children go through stages of language development

17.1.1.1. Theorist `jean POiaget emphasized that we can only nove through the stages of language learning as our brains and cognitive processes develop

17.1.1.2. Theorist Eric Lenneberg argues that there is a critical period between 2 years old and puberty

17.2. behavioural theory

17.2.1. Imitation theory

17.2.1.1. that people are a profuct of their environment

17.2.1.1.1. theorist BF Skinner propoes that children imitate their caregivers and modify their language use through a porcess called opearant conditioning

17.3. nativist theory

17.3.1. innateness theory

17.3.1.1. was frist proposed by `noam Chomsky ,states that children are born an innate ability to learn language that they have alrrady a "language acquistion device" in brain

17.4. interactionist theory

17.4.1. emphasies the importance of caregivers in child langauge langauge acquistion

17.4.1.1. theorist Jerome Bruner argued that children do have an innate ability to learn language however they require lots of interaction with caregivers to achieve full fluency

17.4.1.1.1. often called "scaffolding`' or Language Acquistion Support system (LASS)

17.4.1.1.2. caregivers may also use child-diretced speech that children learn

18. Halliday's Functions of Language

18.1. Micheal HAlliday syggested 7 stages that show how the fucntions of a child's language become more complex with age.

18.1.1. 1stage

18.1.1.1. Instrumental stage

18.1.1.1.1. language for basic needs

18.1.2. 2stage

18.1.2.1. Regulatory Stage

18.1.2.1.1. langauge to influence others

18.1.3. 3stage

18.1.3.1. ~Interactive Stage

18.1.3.1.1. language to form relationships

18.1.4. 4stage

18.1.4.1. Personal Stage

18.1.4.1.1. language to express feelimgs or opinions

18.1.5. 5stage

18.1.5.1. `informative Stage

18.1.5.1.1. language to communicate information

18.1.6. 6stage

18.1.6.1. Heuristic Stage

18.1.6.1.1. langauge to learn and explore

18.1.7. 7 stage

18.1.7.1. Imaginative Stage

18.1.7.1.1. language used to imagine things

19. Bilingualism

19.1. Simulatenous bilingualism

19.1.1. refers to the acquistion of two languages simulatenously from infancy

19.1.1.1. Unitary System hypothesis

19.1.1.1.1. the idea that the child initally consturcts only lexicon and one grammar

19.1.1.2. Separate systems hyporthesis

19.1.1.2.1. the idea that the child builds a distinct lexicon and grammar for each language

20. Second language Acquisition

20.1. Fundamental difference hypothesis

20.1.1. learning a second languahe is a different process than learning a first language

20.2. Heritage language learners

20.2.1. constitute a unique type of adult language learner