1. Brain Localization and Function
1.1. Specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors/functions
1.1.1. References:
1.1.1.1. (Paul Broca) Suffering from damage in the left frontal lobe of the brain were unable to understand and make grammatically complex sentence
1.1.1.2. (Carl Wernicke) Described the area of the brain that appears crucial for language comprehension - the left posterior superior temporal gyrus. The patients could produce speech, but could not understand it
1.1.1.3. H.M Longitudinal Study
1.1.2. Findings:
1.1.2.1. Broca and Wernicke concluded that language processing is localized - meaning it can be traced to specific parts of the brain
1.1.2.2. Hippo-campus and surrounding areas (Medial Temporal Lobe) plays a “critical” role in memory processing, forming, organization, consolidation, retrieval, storage of new memories, and converting from short term to long term. (H.M.)
2. Physiology and the Environment
2.1. The brain can determine and change behavior, and behavior and the environment can change the brain
3. Genetics and Behavior
3.1. Background:
3.1.1. Behaviors themselves are not genetically passed from one generation to another. There is no single cause-and-effect relationship between genes and behavior
3.1.2. Dependent on correlational studies. Look how variables co-vary: or how a variable varies together with another variable. Or a variable relationship when no IV is manipulated -- thus, no cause-and-effect
3.1.3. Genetics: the study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation in living organisms
3.2. Genetic Research:
3.2.1. Twin Studies:
3.2.1.1. The thought goes that the higher the genetic relationship, the more similar individuals will be if the particular characteristic being investigated is inherited
3.2.2. Family Studies:
3.2.2.1. More representative of the general population . These degrees of genetic relatedness are compared with behavior. Thus, concordance rate will increase if heritability is high and vice versa
3.2.3. Adoption Studies:
3.2.3.1. Most direct comparison of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
3.2.3.2. If heritability of behavior is high and environment plays little to no role, then the behavior of adopted children should correlate with behavior of the biological parents - and not with the adoptive parent
4. Evolution and Behavior
4.1. The environment presents challenges. Those who adapt best to those challenges have a greater chance of surviving, having children, and passing on their genes to their children
4.1.1. Reference Study:
4.1.1.1. Matsuzawa (2007)
4.2. Theory of natural selection explains how species acquire adaptive characteristics to survive in ever-changing environments
4.3. Evolutionary Psy.
4.3.1. Grounded in principle that as genes mutate, the advantageous ones are passed down through natural selection
4.3.2. Seeks to explain how certain behaviors demonstrate the development of human species over time. Natural selection cannot select for a behavior. It only selects for mechanisms that produce behavior
4.3.2.1. Reference Studies:
4.3.2.1.1. Fessler (2005) (2006)
4.3.2.1.2. Curtis et al. (2004)
5. Ethics and the Biological Level of Analysis
5.1. Localization of Brain Function
5.1.1. Modern research has focused on the role of the nucleus accumbens, the so-called “pleasure centre” of the brain
5.1.1.1. References:
5.1.1.1.1. Robert Heath (1950)
5.1.1.1.2. James Olds
5.2. Technology in Brain Research
5.2.1. Many early experiments involved invasive techniques such as: Removing (ablation) or scarring (lesioning) brain tissue in order to study behavioral changes.
5.2.1.1. References:
5.2.1.1.1. Hetherington and Ranson (1942)
6. BLoA Understanding
6.1. There are physiological origins of many behaviors, and that human beings should be studied as biological systems. But that does not mean that biological systems are the sole influence of behavior.
6.2. Brain processes, neurotransmitters, hormones, genes and other physiological factors play a role in behavior.
6.3. Nature vs. Nurture debate. There is an interactionist approach. Human behavior is acknowledged as the interaction between environment, biology, and other factors
6.4. 3 Principles of the BLoA:
6.4.1. 1) There are biological correlates to behavior.
6.4.1.1. This means there are physiological origins of behavior such as neurotransmitters, hormones, specialized brain areas, and genes.
6.4.2. 2) Animal research can provide insight into human behavior
6.4.2.1. It is assumed that most biological processes are the same for human and nonhuman animals. Animals are used if ethical issues are presented when using humans
6.4.3. 3) Human behavior is, to some extent genetically based
6.4.3.1. Genetic inheritance can explain behavior to an extent. However, environmental factors have an effect on genetic predisposition. Evolution may play a role in this.
7. Brain Plasticity
7.1. The brains ability to rearrange connections between neurons due to changes that occur as a result of learning or experience. The changes are related to challenges of the environment.
7.2. Plasticity can change functional qualities of various brain structures, depending on the type and regularity of the new tasks
7.2.1. High levels of stimulation + numerous learning opportunities = increased density of neural connections
7.2.2. Every time we learn something new, our neurons connect to create a new trace in the brain. This is called dendritic branching
8. Neurotransmission & Hormones
8.1. Neurotrasmission
8.1.1. Background:
8.1.1.1. Nerve cells, Neurons, are one of the building blocks of behavior. Neurons send electrochemical messages to the brain so that people can respond to stimuli.
8.1.1.2. Neurotransmitters are stored in the neurons terminal buttons
8.1.1.3. Neurotransmission underlies behaviour as varied as mood, memory, sexual arousal, and mental illness
8.1.2. Process:
8.1.2.1. Electrical impulses travel down the axon and releases neurotransmitters
8.1.2.2. Crossing the synapse, the neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane
8.1.3. Some Neurotrasmitters:
8.1.3.1. Dopamine
8.1.3.1.1. Involved in goal-directed behavior (motivation) -- pleasure seeking, control of movement, emotional response, and addictive behavior.
8.1.3.2. Acetylcholine
8.1.3.2.1. Linked to synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and it seems to play an important role in learning and short-term memory via the cholinergic system
8.2. Hormones
8.2.1. Background
8.2.1.1. Hormones secreted by glands in the endocrine system. Enter directly into the bloodstream. Take longer to produce changes than neurotransmitters
8.2.1.2. Some chemicals serves as both neurotransmitter and hormone
8.2.2. Some Hormones
8.2.2.1. Oxytocin (The Love Hormone)
8.2.2.1.1. Produced by hypothalamus, after it is stimulated by pituitary gland. Secreted into the bloodstream and the spinal cord
8.2.2.1.2. Appears to change brain signals related to social recognition. Seems to be an effective mediator of human social behavior. When given to healthy individuals, increases trust and generosity
8.2.2.2. Cortisol
8.2.2.2.1. Produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress and to restore homeostasis (the body’s normal balance)
8.2.2.2.2. Chronic stress may result in prolonged cortisol secretion - can lead to physiological changes like damage to the immune system and impairment of learning and memory
9. Physiology and Cognition
9.1. ReferenceStudy:
9.1.1. Davidson et al (2004)
10. Research Methods & Technology
10.1. Technology
10.1.1. Modern technology is extensively used in neuropsychology because it provides an opportunity to study the active brain. This allows researchers to see where specific brain processes take place and enables them to study localization of function in the living human brain
10.1.2. EEG (electroencephalogram)
10.1.2.1. The EEG registers patterns of voltage change in the brain
10.1.2.2. EEG provides the researcher with limited information- it can not show what is happening in deeper brain regions; nor can it show the actual functioning of the brain
10.1.3. PET (positron emission tomography)
10.1.3.1. Scan monitors glucose metabolism in the brain
10.1.3.2. Gur et al. (1995)
10.1.4. fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
10.1.4.1. Provides three-dimensional pictures of the brain structures, using magnetic fields and radio waves