1. History of U.S. Education
1.1. Different interpretations of US educational history revolve around tensions between equity and excellence, between the social and intellectual functions of schooling, and responses to these questions: Education in whose interest? Education for whom?
1.2. Schools of thought
1.2.1. Democratic-Liberal School
1.2.1.1. This school of thought believes that US education involves the progressive evolution of a school system committed to providing equality for all.
1.2.1.2. This school believes that the US educational system must continue to move closer to equality and excellence without sacrificing one or the other too dramatically.
1.2.2. Radical-Revisionist School
1.2.2.1. This school challenged the optimism of the Democratic-Liberal School in the 1960s.
1.2.2.2. This school believes that school expansion happened in order to meet the needs of the elite, not the working class.
1.2.2.3. This school believes that expansion of education has not produced either equality of opportunity or results.
1.2.3. Conservative
1.2.3.1. This school believes that the historical pursuit of social and political objectives resulted in significant harm to the traditional academic goals of schooling.
1.2.3.2. This school of thought has been led in recent years by Diane Ravitch.
1.2.3.2.1. Ravitch argued that preoccupation with using education to solve social problems has not solved these problems and, simultaneously, had led to the erosion of educational excellence.
2. Politics of Education
2.1. Liberal Perspective- This perspective is based on the concept of balancing the economic principle of capitalism with the needs of the people. Based upon John Maynard Keynes theories, people that believe in this perspective believe in equality in areas such as opportunity, wealth, and power.
2.1.1. Views about schools
2.1.1.1. Schools limit the chances of poor and minority students.
2.1.1.2. Schools place too much emphasis on discipline and authority
2.1.1.3. Quality and climate of schools results in inequality in results.
2.1.1.4. Quality and climate of schools results in inequality in results.
2.1.1.5. Traditional curriculum leaves out diversity.
2.2. Conservative Perspective-This perspective is based on the concept of social evolution, much like Darwin's evolutionary theories. This perspective is one of the strongest of individuals or groups will survive. This perspective requires initiative and drive. This perspective puts its primary focus into the individual and what they earn.
2.2.1. Views about schools
2.2.1.1. Standards have declined over time.
2.2.1.2. Cultural literacy is declining.
2.2.1.3. Values are declining.
2.2.1.4. Schools have become chaotic resulting in a decline of authority.
2.2.1.5. Schools are stifled by bureaucracy and inefficiency.
2.3. Radical Perspective- This perspective is based of the concept of democratic socialism being a fairer political and economic system. Radicals believe that the United States has the capacity to ensure a minimally acceptable standard of living, including food, shelter, and healthcare for all citizens. Radicals blame American social problems on the capitalist system. This perspective is very negative about American society.
2.3.1. Views about schools
2.3.1.1. The educational system has failed the poor and minorities.
2.3.1.2. School curriculum promote conformity.
2.3.1.3. Classic curriculum leaves out the cultures, histories, and voices of the oppressed.
2.3.1.4. The educational system promotes inequality of opportunity and results.
2.4. Neo-Liberal Perspective- This perspective is a synthesis of conservative and liberal perspectives. These reformers are highly critical of urban public schools and blame their failure on teacher unions. These reformers also favor enactment of teacher accountability measures.
2.4.1. School reform focused on five areas
2.4.1.1. austerity (cutting public education funding)
2.4.1.2. free market solutions (charter schools and vouchers)
2.4.1.3. individual effort (school quality is the only indicator of student success)
2.4.1.4. state intervention (ensure equity of opportunity)
2.4.1.5. achievement gaps (blamed on ineffective teachers)
3. Sociological Perspectives
3.1. Theoretical Perspectives
3.1.1. Societal Level
3.1.1.1. Includes the most general structures of society, including its political and economic systems, its levels of development, and its system of social stratification.
3.1.2. Institutional Level
3.1.2.1. Includes a society's major institutions, such as the family, school, churches and synagogues, business and government, and the media, all of which play an important role in socialization.
3.1.3. Interpersonal Level
3.1.3.1. Includes the processes, symbols, and interactions that occur within an institutional setting. These include language, dress, face-to-face interactions, gestures, and rituals, all of which comprise everyday life.
3.1.4. Intrapsychic Level
3.1.4.1. Includes individual thoughts, beliefs, values, and feelings, which are to a large degree shaped by the society's institutions and interactions.
3.2. Effects of schooling on individuals
3.2.1. Education affects knowledge and attitudes.
3.2.1.1. The more education an individual receives, the more likely they are to read newspapers, books, magazines, and take part in politics and public affairs.
3.2.2. Education affects employability.
3.2.2.1. Research indicates that large organizations, such as corporations, require high levels of education for white-collar, managerial, or administrative jobs.
3.2.3. Education may promote inequality.
3.2.3.1. Inadequate schools reproduce inequality.
4. Philosophy of Education
4.1. Allows practitioners and prospective practitioners to apply systematic approaches to problem solving in schools.
4.2. Examples
4.2.1. Idealism
4.2.1.1. Educators search for truth through ideas and encourage students to search for truth within themselves. The discovery of truth leads to responsibility.
4.2.1.2. Teacher leads students to analyze and discuss ideas in order to encourage awareness and transformation. The teacher actively participates in discussion.
4.2.1.3. Predominant method: dialogue and questioning
4.2.1.4. Encourages study of the classics since all answers to contemporary problems can be found in the past.
4.2.2. Realism
4.2.2.1. Teachers should be steeped in the basic academic disciplines so they can transmit ideas to students. Encourages a solid foundation in science, mathematics, and the humanities.
4.2.2.2. Methods include lecture, along with question and answer. Realists also support competency-based assessment.
4.2.2.3. Curriculum includes the basics: science, math, reading, writing, and the humanities. They believe in the concept of "essential knowledge."
4.2.3. Pragmatism
4.2.3.1. Education has a responsibility to society. School are a place where ideas can be implemented, challenged, and restructured.
4.2.3.2. Teacher assumes the role of facilitator and offers suggestions, questions, assistance with curricular plans.
4.2.3.3. Encourages the problem-solving or inquiry based method of instruction
4.2.3.4. Curriculum is rooted in the core disciplines. Study of a particular problem incorporates elements from all the disciplines.
4.2.4. Existentialism and Phenomenology
4.2.4.1. Believe that education should focus on individual needs and stress individuality. They emphasize the notion of possibility.
4.2.4.2. Teachers take risks, expose themselves to resistant students, and enable students to become aware of the world around them.
4.2.4.3. They dislike traditional methods and encourage personalization of learning. Teachers pose questions, generate activities, and work together with students.
4.2.4.4. Curriculum is heavily influenced by the humanities, especially literature.
4.2.5. Neo-Marxizm
4.2.5.1. Goal of education is to reproduce the economic, social, and political status quo.
4.2.5.2. The teacher is a "transformative intellectual" who engages her students in a critical examination of the world.
4.2.5.3. Favor a dialectic approach to instruction with lots of question and answer.
4.2.5.4. Curriculum is organized and codified to represent what those in power want children to know.
4.2.6. Postmodernist and Critical Theory
4.2.6.1. Stresses the classroom as a site for political action and teachers as agents of change.
4.2.6.2. Critical pedagogy- Education promotes democracy, Ethics should be emphasized; Students should understand social constructs; Differences should be translated into critical language; Pedagogic practice is seen as political activity; Pedagogy should present alternatives; and Pedagogy should promote teachers as transformative individuals.
5. Schools as Organizations
5.1. Structure of US Education
5.1.1. Governance: US schools are decentralized and primarily under the umbrella of state governments.
5.1.2. Degree of Centralization: The trend is toward larger, more cost effective school organizations.
5.1.3. Student Composition: The trend is toward more diversity in schools. However, there is also a trend toward residential segregation.
5.1.4. Degree of Openness: All children are entitled to enroll in public schools and remain in school until they graduate.
5.1.5. Private Schools: These schools tend to attract the affluent and those who have a strong commitment to education. Most are located on the East and West Coasts.
5.2. School Processes and Cultures
5.2.1. Changing culture requires time, effort, intelligence, and good will. Teachers must be at the forefront of educational change.
5.3. Teachers, Teaching, and Professionalism
5.3.1. Who becomes a teacher? Most public school teachers are women. Teachers must meet certain qualifications as defined within each state.
5.3.2. Nature of Teaching: Teaching is unique because its rewards are derived from students, while little is known about the connection between teaching and learning. The profession is characterized by routines and creativity.
5.3.3. Teacher Professionalization: The field cannot be defined professionally like other fields. They receive their income from "one big client." They cannot teach independently from the organization.
6. Curriculum and Pedagogy
6.1. What do school teach?
6.1.1. Curriculum is mandated by state departments of education and implemented in an organized manner.
6.2. History and Philosophy of Curriculum
6.2.1. Curriculum has been influenced by many factors and philosophical ideologies.
6.3. Politics of Curriculum
6.3.1. Analyzes the struggles over different concepts of what should be taught.
6.3.2. Central question: Who shapes the curriculum? It is culturally valued knowledge, but whose values are taught?
6.3.3. Conflicts are more likely to occur in public schools than in private schools since most private schools are parochial.
6.3.4. Multiple factors influence school curriculum: different branches of government, levels within the school system, professional associations, bureaucratic interests, and private interests.
6.4. Sociology of Curriculum
6.4.1. Focuses on not only what is taught, but WHY it is taught. Sociologists believe that curriculum is value rich.
6.4.2. What is taught in schools must be understood as part of the larger process of cultural conflict and stratification, with school knowledge important not so much for its functional value but its value in attaining access to specific occupations.
6.4.3. Multicultural Education: Emphasis began in the 1980s because of belief that American curriculum was too Eurocentric and male dominated.
6.5. Curriculum Theory
6.5.1. Pedagogic Practices
6.5.1.1. The relationship between curriculum, content of education, and pedagogy (the process of teaching) is an interdependent one, with each being a necessary but insufficient part of the art of teaching.
6.5.2. Philosophy of Teaching
6.5.2.1. Different philosophies encourage different pedagogical practices, depending on the philosophy's values.
6.5.2.2. Different teaching practices are not the complete result of philosophy. They are also related to sociological factors.
6.5.3. Stratification of Curriculum
6.5.3.1. Division of the curriculum (academic, vocational, general).
6.5.3.2. Related to the social conditions of students within the school.
6.5.3.3. Includes the controversial concepts of ability grouping and tracking.
6.5.3.3.1. Check out this video on ability grouping: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tItvMjRxL_c
6.5.4. Effects of Curriculum
6.5.4.1. What is taught is not necessarily equal to what is learned!
7. Equality of Opportunity
7.1. Three main types of social stratification
7.1.1. Caste stratification: social level is based on race or religion; noted mostly in agrarian societies.
7.1.2. Estate stratification: social level is based on the family's worth; noted mostly in agrarian societies.
7.1.3. Class stratification: social level is based on economic achievements; noted mostly in industrial societies.
7.2. Social stratification in the United States
7.2.1. Upper Class: 1-3% of the total US population
7.2.2. Upper Middle Class: 15% of the total US population
7.2.3. Lower Middle Class: 25% of the total US population
7.2.4. Working Class- 40% of the total US population
7.2.5. Lower Class: 20% of the total US population
7.3. Student achievement show correlations with several things, including social class, race, ethnicity, and gender.
7.3.1. Achievement gaps are observed disparities between the performance of different groups (based on socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or gender).
7.3.2. It is important to consider how achievement gaps affect equality in education. For example, females tend to perform better in reading than in science. This may limit their access to scientific fields of study.
7.4. The Coleman Report
7.4.1. The report was based on an extensive survey of educational opportunity. The study included data from 650,000 students and teachers within more than 3,000 schools.
7.4.2. The study was mandated by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and was conducted by James Coleman.
7.4.3. The results are often misinterpreted. Some believe it argues that schools do not matter when it comes to the achievement of students. Those who argue such believe that the study shows family situations have the most impact.
7.4.3.1. Coleman followed up this original study with work designed to identify the characteristics of schools which DO impact student achievement. He was particularly interested in increasing the impact of schools.
8. Educational Inequality
8.1. Researchers/philosophers seek to understand inequality in education. With understanding, they hope to offer solutions that will lead to more successful schools.
8.1.1. Functional Theorists
8.1.1.1. Believe a "just society" exists when individual talent and hard work are based on universal principles of evaluation.
8.1.1.2. Expect unequal results in schooling due to disparity in talent and willingness to work hard.
8.1.1.2.1. Believe differences should NOT be based on group differences, but rather individual differences.
8.1.2. Conflict Theorists
8.1.2.1. Believe that the role of schools is to REPRODUCE inequality.
8.1.2.1.1. Consistent with data showing educational outcome are closely linked to family situations.
8.1.3. Interaction Theorists
8.1.3.1. Suggest that we seek to understand how families and schools interact in order to understand the factors that impact academic achievement.
8.1.3.1.1. Student-centered explanations: focus on factors OUTSIDE of school (family, community, culture, peers, student characteristics)
8.1.3.1.2. School-centered explanations: focus on factors WITHIN the school (teachers, methodology, curriculum, grouping patterns, school climate, expectations)
9. Educational Reform
9.1. Several programs aimed at educational reform have been implemented over the past several decades.
9.1.1. "A Nation At Risk"
9.1.1.1. First wave of educational reform
9.1.1.2. Stressed the need for increased educational excellence through improved standards.
9.1.1.3. Areas of focus
9.1.1.3.1. Need for excellence and equity in schools
9.1.1.3.2. Need to clarify educational goals
9.1.1.3.3. Need to develop common core curriculum
9.1.1.3.4. Need to eliminate tracking programs
9.1.1.3.5. Need for major changes in vocational education
9.1.1.3.6. Need for improved educational technology instruction
9.1.1.3.7. Need to increase the duration and intensity of academic learning
9.1.1.3.8. Need to recruit, train, and retain more academically talented teachers
9.1.2. "State Governor's Conference Recommendations"
9.1.2.1. Second wave of educational reform
9.1.2.2. Recommendations
9.1.2.2.1. Improve teaching of leadership and management
9.1.2.2.2. Seek ways to involve parents in schools and provide parents with school choice
9.1.2.2.3. Ensure that preschoolers have a certain level of school readiness
9.1.2.2.4. Utilize school facilities fully
9.1.2.2.5. Ensure the quality of colleges and their accountability for student learning
9.1.3. "A Nation Prepared: Teachers for a 21st Century"
9.1.3.1. This Carnegie report focused on the quality of teacher education programs in the United States.
9.1.3.2. Assertions
9.1.3.2.1. Teacher education programs lacked rigor which led to low intellectual demand. This lack of preparation would ultimately impact student achievement in schools.
9.1.3.2.2. The academic and professional components of teacher education programs should be reorganized.
9.1.3.2.3. Teacher education programs needed to attract and retain quality, competent teacher candidates.
9.1.4. "Goals 2000"
9.1.4.1. Established six goals for children educated in American schools.
9.1.4.1.1. Goal One: All children will start school ready to learn.
9.1.4.1.2. Goal Two: High school graduation rates will improve to at least 90%.
9.1.4.1.3. Goal Three: Students completing grades 4, 8, and 12 will demonstrate competence in challenging subject matter that leads to preparation for responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive employment.
9.1.4.1.4. Goal Four: Students will be ranked first in the world in mathematics and science achievement.
9.1.4.1.5. Goal Five: Every adult in the United States will be literate and posses the skills needed to compete in a global economy.
9.1.4.1.6. Goal Six: Every school in the United States will offer a disciplined learning environment that is conducive to learning, free of drugs, and free of violence.
9.1.5. "No Child Left Behind"
9.1.5.1. Created new levels of accountability for American schools
9.1.5.1.1. Required annual testing of students in grades 3-8 in reading and math; also required at least one test in grades 10-12; added accountability for science scores.
9.1.5.1.2. Used graduation rates as a secondary indicator of school success.
9.1.5.1.3. Required districts and states to report disaggregated student test score data; required reporting for the following demographic groups: African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, whites, special education students, students with limited English proficiency, and low income students.
9.1.5.1.4. Required states to set "adequate yearly progress" goals for schools.
9.1.5.1.5. Labeled schools as "in need of improvement" when they failed to meet AYP two years in a row; included the option for students in these schools to move to another public school; made funds available for teacher professional development in those schools; created a restructuring process for schools that continued to struggle.
9.1.5.1.6. Required teachers in core academic areas to be "highly qualified."
9.1.6. "Race to the Top"
9.1.6.1. Made several suggestions for educational reform
9.1.6.1.1. Adopt standards and assessments that prepare student for college and career success.
9.1.6.1.2. Build data systems that measure student growth and success, while informing teachers and principals of needed improvements.
9.1.6.1.3. Recruit, develop, reward, and retain effective teachers and school leaders.
9.1.6.1.4. Turn around the lowest performing schools