1. Schools as Organizations
1.1. Alabama State Senators
1.1.1. Tim Melson, Bill Hotlzclaw, Arthur Orr, Paul Bussman, Greg Reed, Larry Stutts, Paul Sanford, Steve Livingston, Clay Scofield, Phil Williams, Jim McClendon, Del Marsh, Gerald Dial, Cam Ward, Slade Blackwell, J.T. Waggoner, Shay Shelnutt, Rodger Smitherman, Priscilla Dunn, Linda Coleman, Gerald Allen, Greg Albritton, Henry Sanders, Bobby Singleton, Dick L. Brewbaker, Quinton Ross, Tom Whatley, Bill Beasley, Harri Ann Smith, Clyde Chambliss Jr, Jimmy Holley, Trip Pittman, Vivian Figures, Rusty Glover, Bill Hightower
1.2. Alabama House of Represenatives
1.2.1. Will Ainsworth, Louise Alexander, Allen Bawler, Michael Ball, George Bandy, Paul Beckman Jr, Elaine Buck, Marcell Black, Christopher Blackshear, Allen Boothe, Barbara Boyel, Napoleon Bracy Jr, Karren Brown, James Buskey, Mack Butter, Jenn Canns, Donnie Chisten, Adeline Clark, Donny Crawsford, Anthony Dameks, Randy Davis, Chrostopher England, Allen Farley, David Faulkner, Joseph Fanet, Robert Tineher, Craig Ford, Berry Trotti, Matthew Fridy, Daniel Garrett, Victor Gaston, Juandaylynn Givan, Lynn Greer, Dexter Grimsley, Laura Hall, Mickey Hamner, Thoman Harts, Corey Harlaison, Alan Harper, Ed Henry, Jim Hill, Mike Holmes, Alvin Holmes, Ralph Howard, Stever Harot, Reed Ingram, Thomas Jackson, Ron Johnson, Ken Johnson, Mike Jones, John F. Rosegold, Nelsopn Laurence, Nathan Ledbetter, Paul Lee, Richard Lindsey, Joe Lovvern, Jimmy Martin, Artis McCambell, Tham McClammy, Mac McCutcchen, Steve McMillian, Mike Millician, Arnold Mooney, Mary Moore, Barry Moore, Johnny Mack Morrow, Becky Nordgreen, Jim Patterson, Phillip Pettus, Dimitri Poligres, Bill Poole, Chris Peringle, Kerry Rich, Oliver Robinson, John Rogers, Connie Rowe, Howard Sanderford, Rod Scott, Chris Sells, avid Sessions, Radndell Sgedd, Harry Shiver, Kyle South, David Standridge, Patricia Todd, Allen Trodoway
1.3. Alabama State Superintendent
1.3.1. Michael Sentance
1.4. Representatives on Alabama School Board
1.5. Local Superintendent
1.5.1. Gale Satchel
1.6. Local School Board
1.6.1. Thomas Burgess, Carrie Mitchell, Ricky Saint, Sandra James, Mary Moore
1.7. Elements of Change
1.7.1. Schools are bureaucratic systems. Therefore, for change to occur in processes, it is a very difficult process because of so many vested interests. For change to occur culturally: conflict is necessary, new behaviors must be learned, team building must extend to the entire school, and process and content are interrelated.
2. Curriculum and Pedagogy
2.1. The Social Meliorist Curriculum
2.1.1. Stresses the role of curriculum in moving students into becoming aware of societal problems and active in changing the world.
2.2. The 2 Dominant Traditions of Teaching
2.2.1. Mimetric teaching: Is based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to transmit specific knowledge to students (best done through the didactic method- commonly relying on lecture of presentation) Transformative teaching: this model defines the function of education more ambiguously. They reject authoritarian methodology. It involves dialogue between teacher and student. In the core of this methodology is open ended questions.
3. Politics of Education
3.1. The Four Purposes of Education
3.1.1. INTELLECTUAL: To teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics; To transmit specific knowledge (history, literature, science); Help students acquire higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.
3.1.2. POLITICAL: To inculcate allegiance to the existing political order; To help assimilate diverse culture groups into a common political order; To teach children the basic laws of society.
3.1.2.1. SOCIAL: To help solve social problems; To work as one of many institutions (family, church, synagogue) to ensure social cohesion; To socialize children into various roles, behaviors, and values of the society (this is called socialization).
3.1.2.1.1. ECONOMIC: Prepare students for their later occupational roles and to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor. (Most schools have at least an indirect role in this process)
3.2. The Liberal Perspective: The Role of the School
3.2.1. While the liberal perspective also stressed the training and socialization function, these aims are seen differently. Equality of opportunity stresses the schools role in providing necessary education to ensure all students have equal opportunity to succeed in society. Stresses the pluralistic nature of the U.S. society and the schools role in teaching children to respect cultural diversity so they can understand it and fit into a diverse society.
3.2.2. Politically, liberals stress the importance of citizenship and participation in a democratic society and the need for an educated citizenry.
3.2.2.1. Finally, the liberal perspective stresses individual as well as societal needs. Enabling the individual to develop his/her talents, creativity, and sense of self.
3.2.2.1.1. Therefore, the liberal perspective sees the role of education as balancing the needs of society and the individual in a manner consistent with a democratic and meritocratic society. Envision society, in which citizens participate in decision making, adult status based on merit and achievement, and all citizens receive fair and equal opportunity for economic wealth, political power, and social status.
3.3. The Liberal Perspective: Explanations of Unequal Performance
3.3.1. The liberal perspective argues that individual students/groups of students begin school with different life chances and therefore, some groups have significantly more advantages than others.
3.3.2. Therefore, society must attempt through policies and programs to equalize the playing field so that students from disadvantaged backgrounds have a better chance.
3.4. The Liberal Perspective: Definition of Educational Problems
3.4.1. Schools have too often limited the life chances of poor and minority children and therefore the problem of underachievement by these groups is a critical issue.
3.4.1.1. Schools place too much emphasis on discipline and authority, thus limiting their role in helping students develop as individuals.
3.4.1.1.1. Differences in quality and climate between urban and suburban and (most specifically) between schools of low socioeconomic backgrounds and students of high socioeconomic backgrounds is a central problem related in inequalities as the result.
3.5. Additional References
3.5.1. Diane Ravitch, historian of education, summarizes the liberal view of education: "To believe in education is to believe in the future, to believe in what may be accomplished through the disciplined use of intelligence, allied with cooperation, and good will. If it seems naively American to put so much stock in schools, colleges, universities, and the endless prospect of self-improvement and social improvement, it is an admirable, and perhaps even a noble flaw."
3.5.1.1. The liberal view has its origins in the 20th century, in the works of the U.S philosopher John Dewey.
3.5.1.1.1. For John Dewey quotes and reading recommendations go to: https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/42738.John_Dewey
4. Sociological Perspectives
4.1. Theoretical Perspectives
4.1.1. Functionalism: Functional sociologist stress the interdependence of the school system. Researchers study how well the parts are integrated with each other. This point of view sees society as a machine, where one part works with another to produce the energy to make society work as a whole. One of the earliest sociologist to adopt the functional point of view was Emile Durkheim. Durkheim believed that education, in virtually all societies, was of critical importance in creating the moral unity necessary for social cohesion and harmony. According to Durkheim, moral values were the foundation of society. Educational reform, from a functional point of view, is supposed to create structures, programs, and curricula that are technically advanced, rational, and encourage social unity.
4.2. 5 Effects Of Schooling On Individuals and The Impact On Students
4.2.1. Employment: Graduating from college will lead to greater employment opportunities. Research has shown that large organizations require higher levels of education for white-collar, managerial, or administrative positions. Surprisingly, most research has shown that the amount of education is only weakly connected to job performance. For example, studied factory workers, maintenance workers, department store clerks, technicians, secretaries, bank tellers, engineers, industrial research scientists, military personnel, and federal civil service employers has found that the level of education was essentially unrelated to job performance. People learn to do their jobs by doing them. Perhaps because academic credentials help individuals get higher status jobs earlier in their careers, possession of a college degree is significantly related to higher income. Among household heads at all levels of education, women earned less than me. Women with professional degrees, on average, earn considerably less than men with college degrees. These differences are due to occupational segregation by sex, pay discrimination, and the fact that women, more than men, take off work for family related commitments. Getting a college or professional degree is important for making more income, but education alone does not fully explain the levels of income.
4.2.2. Education and Mobility: The belief that occupational and social mobility starts with education is a critical component of the American ethos. Of course, not everyone believes this. MacLeod found that working class boys often reject the prevailing "attainment through education" ethos by emphasizing their lack of economic and social mobility through cultural values that glorify physical hardness and manual labor. In general, most Americans do believe that more education leads to economic and social mobility. And that individuals rise and fall on account of their merit. Turner called this contest mobility. Hopper pointed out that there is a difference between educational amount and educational route. Meaning where people go to school affects their mobility. The debate as to whether public school is really the great equalizer has not been resolved.
4.2.2.1. Education and Inequality: Most of us are aware that income, power, and property are unequally distributed throughout American society. Social class differences are not only reflected in differences in income, but also in other social characteristics, such as education. If you know a family's class position, you may also know their life-style and life chances. Those oppressed by the class system may resist and revolt, while those who benefit cooperate and defend the current form of social stratification. People are not only stratified by class, but also by race, ethnicity, age, and gender. Americans live in a hierarchical society, where mobility is blocked because of structural inequalities that have little or nothing to do with an individuals merits or abilities.
4.2.2.1.1. De Facto Segregation: Another way that schools enforce and even create inequalities, particularly race and ethnic inequalities, is through de facto segregation. Although the issue is far from resolved, most evidence indicates that racially mixed schools benefit minorities and do not suppress white achievement. The issue of segregation, or re-segregation, will be with society for a long time, if for no other reason than most people live is racially segregated neighborhoods. Groups and individuals that believe students should be allowed to choose the schools they wish to attend argue that school choice will break down the barriers to integration created by racially segregated neighborhoods. Whether school choice would end school segregation is debatable. The historical evidence from the South during the 1960s and 1970s is not reassuring. In addition, the evidence on school choice indicates it has often led to segregation rather than integrated schools.
4.3. Additional References
4.3.1. Emile Durkheim and functionalism.
4.3.2. Functionalism and Conflict Theory in Education.
4.3.2.1. Gender inequality from students point of view.
4.3.2.1.1. Segregation in Education.
5. History of U.S. Education
5.1. Common Schools
5.1.1. Horace Mann advocated for free public elementary schools. He did this with a concern for stability and order and the concern for social mobility.
5.1.2. He spoke of school as a way to prepare for citizenship, calling it the "balance wheel" and "the great equalizer of the conditions of men."
5.2. Resistance
5.2.1. Not all groups agreed with the idea of common schools. Those without children felt it unfair to be taxed for something they were not using. Roman Catholics disagreed with the common school's Protestant influence, and formed their own schools.
5.2.2. Some viewed the idea of public schools only being for children of the poor, long hampered the acceptance of the idea that publicly supported schools could and should exist for all children, regardless of social class, gender, religion, ethnicity, or country of origin. Moreover, the European and colonial insistence that responsible parents need concern themselves only with the education of their own children through the avenues of the family, church, or the voluntary efforts of like-minded citizens only slowly gave way to the conviction that publicly supported common schools might serve all children equally, and in so doing advance the moral, social, and economic interests so vital to the nation
5.3. Impact Of Common Schools
5.3.1. Read more: Common School Movement - Colonial and Republican Schooling, Changes in the Antebellum Era, The Rise of the Common School - StateUniversity.com http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1871/Common-School-Movement.html#ixzz4L0P8e0C7
5.3.1.1. Conflict Theory: Some sociologist argue that social order is not based on collective agreement, rather the ability of dominant groups to impose their will onto subordinate groups through force or manipulation. In this view, the glue of society is economic, political, cultural, and military power. Karl Marx did not write a lot on education specifically, however, he is the intellectual founder of the conflict school in the sociology of education. Marx believed that the class system made class struggle inevitable. Marx's critique of early capitalism has provided the intellectual energy for liberal/leftist thinkers who believe the abolition or modification of capitalism and the introduction of socialism. Political economists Bowles and Gintis believe that there is a direct correspondence between the organization of schools and the organization of society, and until society is changed there is little hope for successful school reform. Max Weber took a different viewpoint of the conflict theory. Weber believed that class differences alone could not capture the complexity of human beings forming hierarchies and belief systems that made them seem just and inevitable. Weber also had an acute understanding that bureaucracy was becoming the dominant type of authority, and that bureaucratic thinking would inevitably shape educational reforms. Willard Waller was of the perspective that is shared by many conflict theorist who see schools as oppressive and demeaning, This perspective portrays student noncompliance with school rules as a form of resistance.The conflict perspective also points out (Randall Collins) that educational credentials are more of a status symbol than indicators of achievement.
5.3.1.1.1. Interactional Theories: Are primarily critiques and extensions of the functional and conflict perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that both the aforementioned theories are very abstract, and emphasize structure and process at a very generalized level. Interactional theorists attempt to take the commonplace and turn it on its head, everyday taken-for-granted behaviors and interactions between students and students, and students and teachers. It is exactly what one does not question that is most problematic at a deep level.
5.3.2. Prior to the common schools being put into place, it evident that the pre-war established schools were not functioning effectively. The vast majority of Americans were illiterate, and not surprisingly.
5.3.3. The common school has opened up many opportunities and future reforms. The idea of a public elementary school gave way for a public secondary school. This may seem like regular practice today, but it was a lot of effort to get common school as the norm. Of course, it took time and a lot of effort for these schools to be completely fair. Women and African Americans still had to fight to be a part of the education system in an equal manner. But eventually it did happen. Without the first step of the common school, however, it could have taken much longer!
5.3.4. The Democratic-Liberal Perspective
5.3.4.1. Democratic-liberals believe that although the progressive evolution of U.S. education has been flawed, it has also been committed to providing equality of opportunity for all.
5.3.4.1.1. Historians suggest that each period of expansion has been attempts of liberal reformers to expand educational opportunities to larger segments of the population.
5.3.4.2. Additional References
5.3.4.2.1. "A teacher who is attempting to teach without inspiring the pupil with a desire to learn is hammering on cold iron." --Horace Mann
6. Philosophy of Education
6.1. Pragmatism
6.1.1. Generic Notions: Dewey's form of pragmatism (instrumentalism and experimentation) was founded on the new psychology, behaviorism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. His ideas were influenced by the theory of evolution and the optimistic belief in progress. For Dewey, this meant the attainment of a better society through education. The school became an "embryonic community" where children could learn skills experimentally as well as from books. In addition to traditional information, which would enable them to work well in a democratic society. Dewey's ideas about education are often referred to as progressive. He proposed that educators begin with the needs and interests of the student, allow the student to participate in planning their course of study, employ project method or group learning, and depend heavily on experimental learning. Dewey's progressive methodology rested on the notion that children are active, organic beings, growing and changing, and require a course of study that can reflect their stages of development. He advocated both freedom and responsibility for his students, since these are vital in a democratic society. Democracy was particularly important to Dewey. He believed the school should reflect the community, so students can prepare for societal roles and maintain the democratic way of life.
6.1.2. Key Researchers: Pragmatism is generally viewed as an American philosophy that developed in the latter part of the 19th century. Generally speaking, the founders of this school of thought are George Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. However, there are European philosophers from earlier periods who might also be classified as pragmatists, such as Frances Bacon, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The pragmatic philosophy encourages people to find processes that work in order to achieve their desired ends. Although, pragmatists do study the past, they are generally more interested in contemporary issues and in discovering solutions to problems in present day terms. Pragmatists are action oriented and experimentally grounded. Francis Bacon emphasized experience posited firmly within the world of daily existence, thus he can be thought of a pioneer in pragmatic school philosophy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau placed an important emphasis on environment and experience, which makes him important to subsequent pragmatic thinkers. John Dewey emphasized the constant interaction between the organism and its environment. He saw the world as dynamic and developing. He coined the terms instrumentalism and experimentalism. Instrumentalism refers to the pragmatic relationship between school and society. Experimentalism refers to the application of ideas to educational school. Dewey's philosophy of education is the most important influence on what has been termed progressive education.
6.1.2.1. Goals of Education: Dewey's vision of schools was rooted in social order. He believed that philosophy had a responsibility to society and that ideas required laboratory testing; thus he stressed the importance of the school being a place where ideas can be implemented, challenged, and restructured. With the goal being to provide students with the knowledge of how to improve the social order. He believed school should "conjoint, communicated experience"--that it should function as preparation for life in a democratic society. His vision of schooling must be understood as part of the larger project for social progress and improvement. Dewey's philosophy made a conscious attempt to balance the social role of the school with its effects on the social, intellectual, and personal development of individuals. For both Durkheim and Dewey, the schools must play a key role in creating a modern form of cohesion between socializing diverse groups into a democratic society. For Dewey, the primary role of education was growth.
6.1.2.1.1. Role of the Teacher: In a progressive setting the teacher is no longer an authoritarian figure but rather a facilitator. The teacher encourages, offers suggestions, questions, and helps plan and implement courses of study. The teacher also writes the curriculum and must have command of several disciplines in order to create and implement the curriculum.
6.2. More on John Dewey
6.2.1. John Dewey
6.2.2. John Dewey
6.3. Additional References
6.3.1. Student centered learning.
6.3.2. Experimentalism Education.
6.3.2.1. Integrated Curriculum.
6.3.2.1.1. The Role of the Teacher.
7. Education Reform
7.1. School Based Reform
7.1.1. One school based reform is Vouchers: In the 1990s a number of states implemented school voucher programs, all of which were challenged by state courts for violating separation of church and state. Because the vouchers went directly to the families, rather to religious schools, and because they could be used in either religious or secular private schools, the voucher program did not violate the constitutional prohibition against public money being used for religious purposes. Many policy expects assumed there would be a widespread adoption of the voucher program. Voucher advocates argue that school choice will have three important educational impacts: 1) Will provide low income parents with the same choices as middle class parents and lead to increased parental satisfaction with their children's schools. 2) Given the absence of of the large bureaucracy of urban schools systems,charter and voucher schools will provide better learning environments for lower income students and result in higher student achievement.3) Due to competitive market effects of competition from charter and voucher schools, urban public schools will be forced to improve or close their doors. research shows that students from voucher and charter schools did not outperform students from public schools. Critics of voucher programs complain that this drains resources from public schools, therefore increasing inequality.
7.1.1.1. Privatization: From the 1990s the distinction between public and private education has become blurred with private education companies increasingly becoming involved in public education in a variety of ways. First, for profit companies (such as Edison company) took over the management of schools and districts. The Philadelphia Public Schools taken over by the state of Pennsylvania in 2003 due to low student achievement, hired for profit companies, as well as local universities, to manage its schools. For profit companies, such as Kaplan and Sylvan Learning Center, have the majority of contracts for supplemental tutoring under NCLB. It is too early to assess the efficiency of such privatization.
7.2. Other Reforms
7.2.1. Full service and community schools: Another way to attack educational inequality is to examine and plan to educate not only the whole child, but also the whole community. Dryfoo's model for fulls service of schools Canada's Harlem Children's Zone and Newark's Broader Bolder Approach, are three models of community based reform. Full service schools focus on meeting students' and their families educational, physical, psychological, and social needs in a coordinated and collaborative fashion between school and community services. In this model schools service as community centers within neighborhoods that are open extended hours to provide a multitude of services such as adult education, health clinics, recreation facilities, after school programs, mental health services, drug and alcohol programs, job placement and training, and tutoring services. Specifically designed to target and improve at risk neighborhoods, full service schools aim to prevent problems as well as support them. There is no evidence yet as to if full service schools affect achievement.
7.2.1.1. Connecting school, community, and societal reforms: Research conducted over a 20 year period demonstrates that a combination of school, community, and societal level reforms are necessary to reduce the achievement gap. Their research argues that successful school reform must be based on a number of essential supports: leadership as the driver for change/ parent-community ties/professional capacity/ student centered learning climate/ instructional guidance. Nonetheless, they demonstrate that these supports are most needed and difficult to implement in the highest poverty schools and that educational reforms must include policies aimed at the amelioration of the effects of poverty.
8. Educational Inequality
8.1. Cultural Deprivation Theory
8.1.1. Suggests that working class and nonwhite families lack the cultural resources (such as books and other educational stimuli) and thus arrive at school with a significant disadvantage.
8.1.1.1. Some theorists assert that the poor have a deprived culture. One that lacks the value system of white middle class households. According to this perspective white middle class families value hard work and initiative, the delay of immediate gratification for future reward, and see educational attainment as a means for social mobility. These theorists assert that minority and lower class families eschews delayed gratification for immediate reward, rejects hard work and initiative, and does not believe educational achievement is a direct line to social mobility.
8.2. School Centered Explanations for Educational Inequality
8.2.1. School Financing: Public schools are financed through a combination of revenues from local, state, and federal sources. The majority however, comes from local and state taxes. With property tax being a primary source. So, where property taxes are higher the more money is put into school systems, poorer communities are able to raise significantly less for their schools. More affluent communities are able to provide more per student. The use of federal aid to equalize school funding is a controversial topic.
8.2.1.1. Effective School Research: The findings of Coleman that differences in school resources and quality do not adequately explain between school differences in academic achievement was viewed by teachers as a mixed blessing. On one hand if student differences are so important than school differences, then teachers cannot be blamed for the lower academic performance of nonwhite and working class students. On the other hand, if schools' effects are not significant then schools and teachers do little to make a positive difference. There is argument to compare schools within lower socioeconomic communities as well. The effective school literature list ways in which effective schools can help their students achieve academically: a climate of high expectations/ strong and effective leadership/ accountability for students and teachers/ monitoring student learning/ instructional time on task/ flexibility to experiment.
8.2.1.1.1. Between school differences; Curriculum and Pedagogical changes: School climates can affect academic performance. Much research looks at schools in lower income areas to show that these schools can make a difference in their communities. One is still faced with the question why schools in higher socioeconomic climates overall show better results in academic achievement... could it be because they already have a school climate conductive to student learning? Teachers in lower socioeconomic areas ten to have a more authoritarian attitude in instructing their classes. More middle class schools have student centered classrooms and non authoritarian teaching styles.
9. Equality of Opportunity
9.1. Impact on Educational Outcomes
9.1.1. Class: Education is expensive and the longer a student remains in school, the more expensive it becomes. At some point, parental assistance is needed. This situation obviously favors wealthier families. Working class families have lower expectations for their children. Teachers tend to think more highly of middle and upper class students than lower class, because they speak "standard" English. Peer groups also have an influence on education. Social class and level of educational attainment are directly related. This is a challenge for those who wish to seek educational equality.
9.1.1.1. Race: The US is still highly stratified by race. An individuals race has a direct impact on how much education they are likely to receive. 9.3 % of African American students drop out. and 17.6 % of Hispanic American students drop out. Among 17 year olds 89% of White students can read at an intermediate level, 66% of African American students have reached reading proficiency, and 70% of Hispanic students are reading at intermediate levels. On average minority students have lower SAT scores than White students. There is a direct link between SAT scores and academic scholarships. In the US it is impossible to separate race from class. Minority students receive fewer and inferior educational opportunities. Minorities do not receive the same educational opportunity as whites and their rewards for educational attainment are significantly less.
9.1.1.1.1. Gender: Historically a persons gender was directly related to their educational attainment. Although women are often labeled as better students than men, in the past they were less likely to receive the same level of education. Today, females are less likely to drop out and more likely to have a higher reading proficiency than males. The one area that men outperform is in mathematics. Overall males score higher on SATs. More women attend post secondary institutions than men. In the past twenty years the educational attainment differences between men and women have been reduced. There are still significant advantages for men when competing for the most prestigious academic prizes.
10. The Coleman Study
10.1. One view of the 1982 study is that what Coleman found significant, others found almost completely insignificant. The differences that exist between public and Catholic Schools are statistically significant but in terms of differences of learning are negligible.
10.1.1. Borman and Dowling applied the most sophisticated tools forty years later to evaluate educational data in a similar manner. Their research partially confirms Coleman's data. Where an individual goes to school is often related to their race and socioeconomic status, but the racial and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individuals race and class.