1. Politics of Education
1.1. Four Purposes of Education
1.1.1. 1. intellectual-teach basic cognitive skills(reading writing and arithmetic)
1.1.2. 2. Political- develop alligences to the existing political order and prepare citizens to participate in in the political order
1.1.3. 3. Social Purpose- help solve social problems, insure social cohesion, and socialize children into certain roles, behaviors, and values
1.1.4. 4. Economic- Prepare students for occupational roles and select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor
1.1.5. Role of the school: Liberal Perspective- stresses the schools role in providing the necessary education to ensure all students have an equal opportunity to succeed
1.2. Definition of Educational Problems: Radical-Education has failed the poor, minorities, and women through classist, racist, sexist, and homophobic policies
2. History of Education
2.1. Educational Reform Movements:
2.1.1. Unequal Performance: Conservative Perspective- students will rise and fall based on their own intelligence
2.1.2. Common School: (1820-1860) the road to secular paradise is through education-
2.1.2.1. Horace Mann fought for and created the first public school known as the Common School
2.1.3. Urbanization: (1900-1914) (gap between rich and Poor had never been as great) a. Government national, state and local levels should be responsible for the welfare of it's citizens b. looked to schools to as a means of preserving the democracy b. schools began to teach basic social skills (bathing) c. education based on students abilities and talents
2.1.3.1. John Dewey-argued to restructure schools as embryonic communities
2.1.4. Public High Schools: (1875-1940) a.<16 high school became compulsory and unselective b.way was paved for states to tax citizens for purpose of public education
2.1.4.1. Committee of ten- gave a report on the purpose of high school education
2.1.5. Equal of Opportunity: (post WWII) a. GI bill of rights gave the disadvantaged or those with poor elementary or secondary prep attend college b. equality for the poor and disadvantaged became a focus c. questioned the relationship between race and education- school segregation d. attempt to equalize spending between high income areas and low income areas e. school placement not based on race f. 60"s college adopted open enrollment and co-ed colleges emerged
2.1.6. Standards Era: (1980-2012) a. An idea that promoting social issues had created mediocrity b. Attention was given to importance curriculum, tightening of standards, the move toward academic goals and assessment c. NO Child Left Behind and RTT
2.1.6.1. Terrell Bell (national Committee for excellence) High adult illiteracy, declining SAT scores, low scores in international comaprisonons
2.1.6.1.1. 5 recommendations: 1. New basics for HS graduates 2. all school levels expect higher student achievement and 4 year colleges raise admission requirements 3. more time be devoted to teach new basics 5. require elected officials to fund the reforms
2.2. Historical interpretations of US Education
2.2.1. Democratic Liberal School:
2.2.1.1. Plessy vs. Ferguson- separate but equal was reversed among protests of institutional racism
2.2.1.2. Progressive vs. Traditional (post WWII) a. focus not only on the process of education, but educational goals b. traditionalist= knowledge centered curriculum vs. progressives= social based curriculum c. 60's & 70's 1. challenged traditional education 2. attempted to provide education to the poor and disadataged
2.2.1.2.1. "The Great Debate"- Social Curriculum vs. academic curriculum
2.2.1.3. equality of opportunity for all
2.2.1.4. expand educational opportunity to the population and reject idea that education is only for the elite
2.2.1.5. education provides a place for everyone that wishes to have one and in turn yields the most educated population in the world
2.2.1.6. L. Cremin and E. Cubberly
2.2.2. Radical-Revisionist School:
2.2.2.1. believed that educational system expanded to meet the needs of the elite in society
2.2.2.2. to control the working class and immigrates and for economic efficiency and productivity
2.2.2.3. placement in higher education is based on social class and race
2.2.2.4. M. Katz and J. Spring
2.2.3. Conservative Perspective:
2.2.3.1. students know very little and US schools are mediocre
2.2.3.2. pursuit of social and political objectives resulted in harm to traditional academic goals of schooling and the dilution of academic excellence
2.2.3.3. fundamental function of schooling is to develop the powers of intelligence
2.2.3.4. W.Bennett and C. Finn JR
3. Sociological Perspective
3.1. School Sociology- not only do schools shape students perceptions and consciousness but they also act as important , sorters and selectors of students
3.2. Theoretical Perspectives Concerning School and Society
3.2.1. 1. Functionalism
3.2.1.1. begin with a picture of society that stress the interdependence of the social system
3.2.1.2. study how well the parts of society integrate with each other
3.2.1.3. Consensus is the normal state of society and conflict represents a breakdown in shared values
3.2.1.4. educational reform is supposed to create structures , programs, and curricula that are technically advanced , rational, encourage social unity
3.2.1.5. Emile Durkheim (invented sociology of Education)- education was critically important to create social cohesion and harmony- moral values were fundamental for society
3.2.2. Conflict Theory
3.2.2.1. see schools as oppressive and demeaning
3.2.2.2. education symbols are primarily a status symbol rather than an individual achievment
3.2.2.3. believe that education is used to dominate and secure more advantageous places for themselves and their children
3.2.2.3.1. based on the ability of dominant groups to impose their will on subordinate groups through force, cooperation, and manipulation
3.2.2.4. Cultural capitol and social capitol are passed on by families and families. CC and SC suggest that in understanding the transmission of inequalities one can see that the transmission of CC ans SC are indicators of status and class
3.2.2.5. Carl Marx- intellectual founder Max Webber-examined status, culture, and class positions as an important sociological concept
3.2.3. Interactionals
3.2.3.1. Asks the question what to teacher and students actually do in school?
3.2.3.2. attempt to make the common place strange by turning on their heads everyday common place behaviors and interactions between students and students and students and teachers
3.2.3.3. less likely to create theories that are logical and eloquent, but theories that have lots of meaningful content
3.2.3.4. Basil Bernstein-analyzed how communication, family, and educational codes also contribute to educational inequality
3.3. 5 effects of schooling on individuals
3.3.1. Employment
3.3.1.1. graduating from college does lead to greater employment opportunities
3.3.1.2. graduating from college does not make you better at your job
3.3.1.3. graduating from college does in general earn you a higher sallary
3.3.2. Inside the School
3.3.2.1. understand schools in terms of how their objectives, cultures and how they shape students' perceptions and expectations
3.3.2.2. how do school structures shape students outcomes
3.3.2.3. curriculum placement in schools is the biggest determining factor of college attendence
3.3.3. Education and Mobility
3.3.3.1. belief that education and opportunity begin at the schoolhouse door
3.3.3.2. education is the great equalizer in the "great status race
3.3.3.3. Amount vs route:number of educational years is one measure of educational attainment, but where people go to school affects mobility
3.3.4. Teacher Behavior
3.3.4.1. teachers are models for students, set standards, and influence students self esteem and efficacy
3.3.4.2. labels applied by the teacher can impact actual performance
3.3.4.3. teachers' expectations play a major role in encouraging or discouraging students to work to their full potential
3.3.4.4. attitudes toward students may have a profound influence on student achievements and perceptions of self
3.3.5. Tracking
3.3.5.1. impacts student mobility
3.3.5.2. the idea of placing students in curricular programs based on students' abilities and inclinations
3.3.5.3. has been found that these decisions are often made based on race or ethnicity
3.3.5.4. students placed on advanced tracks spend more time actually being taught, better teachers, better lab facilities than their counterparts on a lower track
4. Philosophy of Education
4.1. Pragmatism- a philosophy that encourages people to find processes that work in order to achieve their desired ends. they are more interested in contemporary issues and discovering issues to problems in present day terms
4.1.1. Key Reasearchers
4.1.1.1. founders: George Sanders Pierce, William James, John Dewey
4.1.1.1.1. John Dewey(1859-1952)- the most important influence on today's progressive education--meant to build an embryonic community through schools where children could learn through experimentation, to form books, in addition to traditional information which would enable them to work cooperatively in a democratic society
4.1.2. Goal of Education: integrate children into a democratic society- the primary goal being growth-"be a leveler of social reform"- it is the central institution for societal and personal improvement
4.1.3. Role of the teacher: teacher becomes the facilitator that all knowledge flows through and is no longer the authoritarian figure that all knowledge flows through
4.1.4. Methods of Instruction: a. formal instruction was abandoned b. blocks of time for specific discipline instruction eliminated c. children can learn in groups or alone d. rote memorization was replaced with individual study, problem solving, and project method
4.1.5. Curriculum: core curriculum/integrated curriculum a. one subject matter understudy provides problems in all areas ie math, science, reading, art, history... etc. b. all academic and vocational disciplines are integrated c. provides a balance between traditional disciplines and the needs of the child
4.1.5.1. Montessori
5. Schools of Organizations
5.1. Major Stakeholders in Cullman City School District
5.1.1. 1. State Senators: Jeff Sessions (R), Richard Shelby (R)
5.1.2. 2. US House of Representatives: Robert Aderholt (R), Mo Brooks (R), Bradley Burne (R), Gary Palmer (R), Martha Roby (R), Mike Rodgers (R), Terri Seweel (D)
5.1.3. 3. State School Superintendent: Michael Sentance
5.1.4. 4. Representative on State School Board: Susan Patters
5.1.5. 5. Cullman City School Superintendent: Susan Ptterson
5.1.6. 6. Cullman City School Board: Suzanne Patters, Lee Powell, Jason Neal, Chris Braham, Susan Patters, Joe Orr
5.2. Elements of change within school processess and cultures
5.2.1. 1. Conflict is necessary- allow and require hidden problems, issues and disagreements to surface; staff involvement in school restructuring must be prepared to elicit, manage, and resolve conflict
5.2.2. 2. New behaviors must be learned- the change process must include building communication and trust, enabling leadership and initiative to emerge, and learning techniques of communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution
5.2.3. 3. Team Building must extend to the entire school- shared decision making must consciously work out and give on-going attention to relationships within the rest of the school's staff; otherwise issues of exclusiveness and imagined elitism may surface, and perceived "resistance to change" will persist
5.2.4. 4. Process and content are interrelated- the process a team uses in going about it's work is as important as the educational changes it attempts; the usefulness and the visibility of the project will influence future commitments from and the relationships among the staff and other involved
6. Curriculum and Pedagogy
6.1. The Developmentalist Curriculum (Dewey, 1902)- related to the needs and interests of the students rather than the needs of society.
6.1.1. 1. based upon the child and the relationship to the curriculum; emphasized the process of teaching as the curriculum
6.1.2. 2. Student centered; concerned with relating the curriculum to the needs and interest of the child on their developmental level
6.1.3. 3. stresses flexibility in what is taught and how it is taught; emphasizing the development of each student's capasities
6.1.4. 4. stressed the importance of relating schooling to real life experiences in a way that would make education come alive
6.1.5. 5. teacher is not a transmitter of knowledge, but a facilitator
6.2. Two Dominate traditions of Teaching::
6.2.1. Mimetic (conservative)- based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to transmit specific knowledge to students.
6.2.1.1. didactic method- best method to use for the mimetic tradition- relies on the lecture or presentation as the main form of communication.
6.2.1.2. the education involves the relationship between the knower and the learner
6.2.1.3. education is a process of transferring information from one to another
6.2.2. Transformative Tradition (progressive)- proponents believe that the purpose of education is to change the students in some meaningful way (intellectually, creatively, spiritually, & emotionally)
6.2.2.1. transmission of knowledge is not the only component of education and provide a more multidimensional theory of teaching
6.2.2.2. John Dewey: teaching most be an active practice of all involved (teacher & students)
6.2.2.3. Teacher is less of a authoritative figure and students have more input in their education,
7. Equality of Opportunity
7.1. How do Class, Race, and Gender effect educational outcomes?
7.1.1. CLASS: culturally- schools represent the values of the middle and upper class
7.1.1.1. 1. expense of education- education is expensive, and the longer student's stay in school the more likely they will need parental financial support; this favors wealthier fmilies
7.1.1.2. 2. expectations- upper and middle class expect children to finish school; working and lower class- (generally) have lower levels of expectations
7.1.1.3. 3. literacy- number of books in a families home is related to academic achievement and are more likely to speak standard English
7.1.1.4. 4. labeling of children_ teachers tend to think more highly of upper and middle class childred
7.1.1.5. 5. peer groups- peer groups impact educational attitude; the more middle class students, the more emphasis on academic achievment
7.1.2. RACE:: has a direct impact on how much education he/she will recieve
7.1.2.1. 1. drop out rates: Whites- 5.2%, African Americans- 9.3%, Hispanics- 17.6%
7.1.2.2. 2. Literacy: Whites-89% intermediate reading level, African Americans- 66% intermediate reading level, Hispanics- 70% intermediate reading level
7.1.2.3. 3. test scores- lower level of reading proficiency is reflected in ACT scores
7.1.2.4. 4. cause- undeniable minorities do not receive the same educational opportunities as do whites
7.1.2.5. 5. separation of race/class- society being separated by class makes it very difficult to separated race and class
7.1.3. GENDER: over the last 20 years gender differences have been reudced
7.1.3.1. Historically-
7.1.3.1.1. Women - often thought of as better students, are less likely to obtain the same amount of education as men
7.1.3.2. Present-
7.1.3.2.1. Women- 1. less likely to drop out than men, 2. more likely to have a higher reading proficiency, 3. less likely to attend socially or academic prestigious post-secondary institutions
7.1.3.2.2. Men- 1.out preform in mathematical proficiency, 2. more likely to score higher on SAT
7.2. Coleman Study from 1982- found that private schools were more effective learning environments than public schools because they placed more emphasis on academics and enforce discipline that is consistent with student achievement.
7.2.1. Response #1: (Jencks,1985) the differences that exist between public and private schools are statistically significant, but the results in learning are negligible.
7.2.2. Response #2: (Borman, 2010) where an individual goes to school is related to their race and socioeconomic background, but the racial and socioeconomic background of a school has a greater impact than an individual's race and class.
8. Educational Inequality
8.1. Cultural Deprivation Theory: (Lewis, 1966; Duestch, 1964; Dougherty & Hammack, 1990)
8.1.1. 1. Cultural Resources: (1960) working-class nonwhite families often lack the cultural resources(books and educational stimuli) and thus arrive at school with a significant disadvantage.
8.1.2. 2. Poor- (1966) Poor cultures lack the value system of the middle class (hard work, initiative, delayed gratification, importance of school) putting poor students at a disadvantage. Poor student's have not been raised to acquire the skills and dispositions required for satisfactory academic achievement (Dougherty &Hammack, 1990).
8.1.2.1. Criticism: 1. paternalistic at best and racist at worst, 2. removes responsibility of school success from schools and teachers and puts it onto families, 3. failure of the majority of these compensatory programs to bridge the gap between poverty and school success
8.1.2.2. In reaction policy makers developed programs that focused on the family environment of working class and non white students.
8.1.2.2.1. Project Head Start
8.2. School-Centered explanations for Educational Inequality:
8.2.1. 1. School Financing (Kozol, 1991)- vast difference in funding in public schools between the affluent suburbs and poor school districts
8.2.1.1. Who provides school funding- local, state and federal sources.1. The majority of state and local funding is from property taxes. property taxes are based on home values 2. Federal money is provided to supplement areas with lower property values
8.2.2. 2.Effective School Research (Coleman & Jencks)- Research should be done not only between lower and higher socioeconomic school districts, but between high functioning and low functioning school within each district. We should determine what causes success within each system; low and high socioeconomic districts.
8.2.2.1. What contributes to a high functioning school? 1. climate of high expectations for students by administrators and teachers. 2. strong/effective leadership from principles and school board 3. Accountability for teachers and students 4. teachers spend a high degree of time on instructional tasks( teachers teaching/students learning) 5. flexibility to experiment and adapt to new situations and problems
8.2.3. 3. Curriculum and Pedagogic Practices(between school districts)(Bernstein, 1990)- there are significant differences between the culture and climate of schools in lower socioeconomic and higher socioeconomic communities.
8.2.3.1. Why do theses differences exist? Do schools reflect differences in student cultures that exist prior to the entry of school or do students respond to different curricula, pedagogic practices, and expectations?
8.2.4. 4.Curriculum and Ability Grouping (within schools)(Oaks 1985,2005)- students are placed into groupings based on teacher recommendations, test scores, and sometimes ascriptive characteristics(race, class, gender)
8.2.4.1. Effect; students are often taught the same curriculum, but at a different pace or the teachers may have different expectations for the group. Lower tracts are far more likely to have didactic teacher-directed practices, with rote learning and fact based evaluation. Higher tracts are more likely to have more dialectical, student centered practices, with discussion and thinking based evaluation.
9. Educational Reform
9.1. School Based Reforms:
9.1.1. School Choice- providing federal funding to parents, so that they could then choose their child's school
9.1.1.1. bases:
9.1.1.1.1. Coleman Study of 1982 (featured under Equality of Opportunity Section) stating that private schools provided a superior education
9.1.1.1.2. research on magnet schools seemed to indicate that schools that operated independently of the public school bureaucracy were happier, healthier, and more academically productive than zoned schools where children were forced to attend based on their residence
9.1.1.2. 3 types of school choice
9.1.1.2.1. Intersectional choice- include public and private schools/government [provided vouchers to those that attended private neighborhood
9.1.1.2.2. Intrasectional Choice- choice polices include only public schools. allows students to attend any public school district in the sate as long as the district is willing, has space, and racial balance is not upset
9.1.1.2.3. Intradistrict choice- limited within the school district. Options range from choice of curriculum to allowing students to attend any school within the district as long as racial balance is not upset
9.1.2. Teacher Education- based upon the idea that if education is in trouble then teachers are partly to blame, and if teachers are part of the problem maybe their education and training are to blame
9.1.2.1. Issues with teachers: 1. perceived lack of rigor and demands of teacher ED programs 2. need to keep and attracted competent teacher candidates 3. need to recognize the academic and professional components of teacher education programs
9.1.2.1.1. Issues were studied by the Carnegie Report-A Nation prepared: Teacher's for the 21st Century(1982)
9.1.2.2. Goal of the reform based upon the Carnegie Report: 1. raising intellectual soundness of teacher education 2. linking schools at the university level to schools 3. improving schools for students and teachers
9.1.2.3. Linda Darling Hammond (1996) leader in teacher education reform provided a list of barriers to improving teacher development:
9.1.2.3.1. 1. low expectations for students
9.1.2.3.2. 2. unenforced standards for teachers
9.1.2.3.3. 3. major flaws in teacher preperation
9.1.2.3.4. 4. slipshod teacher recruitment
9.1.2.3.5. 5.inadequate induction for beginning teachers
9.1.2.3.6. 6. lack of professional development and reward for knowledge and skill
9.1.2.3.7. 7. schools that are structured for failure rather than success
9.1.2.4. Recommendations made by the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (Led by Hammond) recommended the following to over come these barriers:
9.1.2.4.1. 1. Get serious about standards for both student's and teachers
9.1.2.4.2. 2. reinvent teacher preparation and professional development
9.1.2.4.3. 3. Fix teacher recruitment and put qualified teachers in every classroom
9.1.2.4.4. 4. Encourage teacher knowledge and skill
9.1.2.4.5. 5. Create schools organized for teacher and student success
9.2. Societal, Community, Economic, and Political Reforms
9.2.1. Full Service and Community Schools- the idea that to eliminate inequity is to examine and plan to educate the whole child, but also the whole community
9.2.1.1. Models for full service schools: Dryfoo's model, Harlem Children's Zone, Newark's broader Bolder Approach
9.2.1.2. Full service schools focus on: 1. meeting students and their families education, 2. physical, psychological, and social needs, 3. needs are coordinated in a collaborative fashion through school and community services
9.2.1.3. Full service schools are designed to target and improve at-risk neighborhoods, and to prevent problems as well as to support them
9.2.2. State Intervention and Mayoral Control in local school districts- the idea that schools should be rewarded and/or punished by the state or local government, and that under-performing schools can come under the control of the state
9.2.2.1. Virtually all accountability systems are based on rewards and sanctions. The ultimate accountability measure being school take over.
9.2.2.2. School Takeover: there is no standard method of imposing/implementing state control of local school districts. Studies show that more gains are made at the central office level then in classrooms
9.2.2.2.1. 3 perceived advantages 1. take over in appropriate cases is a state's constitutional responsibility for public education 2. can allow a competent executive staff to guide implementation of school improvement efforts 3. can possible make more of a radical impact on low performing schools
9.2.2.2.2. 3 perceived disadvantages 1. concept of take over suggests that some communities lack the capacity to operate effective public schools 2. leads to frictions and confrontations between state and local officials that slow progress 3. regardless for reason for the takeover it almost always begins with cleaning up petty corruption within a district
9.2.2.3. Giving Mayoral control over low performing districts
9.2.2.3.1. Proponents believe that giving control to the mayor's office is more effective and efficient than traditional school boards, eliminate corruption, and leads to effective management of budgets
9.2.2.3.2. Critics argue that it has not increased achievement significantly, is undemocratic, and has reduced community and parental involvment
9.2.2.3.3. evidence shows that the evidence regarding mayoral control is mixed
9.2.2.4. Link to the State of Alabama's Accountability process/procedures