1. Sociological Perspectives
1.1. Theoretical Perspective
1.1.1. 1. FUNCTIONALISM
1.1.1.1. a. an "interdependence" of moral unity and social cohesion and harmony
1.1.1.1.1. b. consensus is the normal state in society and conflict represents a breakdown of shared values
1.1.2. 2. CONFLICT THEORY
1.1.2.1. a. Karl Marx is the "intellectual" founder
1.1.2.1.1. emphasize struggle; schools are similar to social battlefields (students struggle against teachers and teachers against administrators, and so on)
1.1.3. 3. INTERACTIONALISM
1.1.3.1. a. primarily critiques and extensions of the functional and conflict perspectives
1.1.3.1.1. b. attempts to make the commonplace strange by disrupting everyday behaviors and interactions between students and students and students and teachers
1.2. Effects of Schooling
1.2.1. 1. KNOWLEDGE & ATTITUDE
1.2.1.1. a. academically oriented schools do produce higher rates of learning
1.2.1.1.1. b. the actual amount of time students spend in school directly relates to how much they learn
1.2.2. 2. EMPLOYMENT
1.2.2.1. a. graduating from college will lead to greater employment opportunities
1.2.2.1.1. b. large organizations, such as corporations, require high levels of education for white-collar, managerial, or administrative jobs
1.2.3. 3. TEACHER BEHAVIOR
1.2.3.1. a. teachers have as many as 1,000 interactions with students each day
1.2.3.1.1. b. teachers are models for students by setting standards and influencing self-esteem and sense of efficacy
1.2.4. 4. STUDENT PEER GROUP & ALIENATION
1.2.4.1. a. student culture idealizes "coolness"
1.2.4.1.1. b. adult culture of the teachers and administrators is in conflict with student culture, which can lead to alienation and even violence
1.2.5. 5. TRACKING
1.2.5.1. a. "tracking" refers to the placement of students in curricular programs based on students' abilities and inclinations
1.2.5.1.1. b. decisions are often based on other criteria such as student class or race
2. Philosophy of Education
2.1. Student-Centered Philosophy (pragmatism or existentialism)
2.1.1. GENETIC NOTIONS
2.1.1.1. a. instrumentalism and experimentalism - children could learn skills both experientially as well as from books
2.1.1.1.1. b. students had a voice in his/her education by participating in planning course of study
2.1.2. KEY RESEARCHER
2.1.2.1. a. John Dewey (1859 - 1952)
2.1.2.1.1. b. believed the schools should reflect the community in order to enable graduating students to assume social roles and to maintain the democratic way of life
2.1.3. GOAL OF EDUCATION
2.1.3.1. a. to integrate children into not just any type of society, but a democratic one
2.1.3.1.1. b. if schools instill democratic and cooperative values in children, they would be prepared as adults to transform the social order into a more democratic one
2.1.4. ROLE OF TEACHER
2.1.4.1. a. no longer the authoritarian figure from which knowledge flows
2.1.4.1.1. b. assumes the peripheral position of facilitator
2.1.5. METHOD OF INSTRUCTION
2.1.5.1. a. children learn both individually and in groups
2.1.5.1.1. b. instruction begins with problem-solving or inquiry method (posing questions about what they want to learn)
2.1.6. CURRICULUM
2.1.6.1. a. core, or an integrated curriculum
2.1.6.1.1. b. working from the known to the unknown or "expanding environment"
3. Schools as Organizations
3.1. Major Stakeholders
3.1.1. state senator:
3.1.1.1. William L. "Bill" Holtzclaw
3.1.2. House of Representatives:
3.1.2.1. Mac McCutcheon
3.1.3. state superintendent:
3.1.3.1. Michael Sentance
3.1.4. representatives on state school board:
3.1.4.1. President - Key Ivey
3.1.4.2. Secretary & Executive Officer - Mr. Michael Sentance
3.1.4.3. President Pro Tem - Mrs. Mary Scott Hunter
3.1.4.4. Vice President - Dr. Yvette Richardson
3.1.4.5. District 1 - Mrs. Jackie Zeigler
3.1.4.6. District 2 - Mrs. Betty Peters
3.1.4.7. District 3 - Mrs. Stephanie Bell
3.1.4.8. District 5 - Ms. Ella Bell
3.1.4.9. District 6 - Dr. Cynthia Sanders
3.1.4.10. District 7 - Mr. Jeffrey Newman
3.1.5. local superintendent:
3.1.5.1. Dr. Tom Sisk
3.1.6. local school board:
3.1.6.1. Limestone County Schools
3.1.6.2. District 1 - Mr. Charles Shoulders (2016-2022)
3.1.6.3. District 2 - Mr. Bret McGill (2016-2022)
3.1.6.4. District 3 - Mr. Ronald Christ (2016-2022)
3.1.6.5. District 4 - Mr. Edward Winter (2014-2020)
3.1.6.6. District 5 - Mr. Bradley Young (2014-2020)
3.1.6.7. District 6 - Mr. Anthony Hilliard (2012-2018)
3.1.6.8. District 7 - Mr. Earl Glaze (2012-2018)
3.2. Elements of Change
3.2.1. School Processes
3.2.1.1. Conflict - necessary part of change staff involvement must be prepared to elicit, manage, and resolve conflict
3.2.1.2. New Behaviors - must be learned. building communication and trust through collaboration and conflict resolution
3.2.1.3. Team Building - extend to the entire school. If not all school staff are included in the decision making process "resistance to change" will persist.
3.2.1.4. Process and Content - The process a team uses in going about its work is as important as the content of educational changes it attempts.
3.2.2. School Culture
3.2.2.1. Time
3.2.2.2. Effort
3.2.2.3. Intelligence
3.2.2.4. Good Will
4. Curriculum and Pedagogy
4.1. Advocated Theory
4.1.1. Developmentalist Theory
4.1.1.1. relates to the needs and interest of the student rather than the need of society
4.1.1.2. emanated from the aspects of Dewey's writings
4.1.1.3. emphasized the process of teaching as well as its content
4.1.1.4. student centered
4.1.1.5. stressed flexibility
4.1.1.6. emphasis on the development of each student's individual capacities
4.1.1.7. relating schooling to the life experiences of each child
4.1.1.8. teacher is the facilitator of student growth
4.1.1.9. profoundly influential in teacher education program
4.2. Dominant Teaching Traditions
4.2.1. Mimetic Tradition
4.2.1.1. based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is t transmit specific knowledge to students
4.2.1.2. commonly relies on the lecture or presentation as the main form of communication
4.2.1.3. education is a process of transferring information from one to the other
4.2.1.4. the belief the student does not possess what the teacher has
4.2.1.5. stresses the importance of rational sequencing in the teaching process and assessment of the learning process
4.2.2. Transformative Tradition
4.2.2.1. based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to change the student in some meaningful way (intellectually, creatively, spiritually, and emotionally)
4.2.2.2. more multi-dimensional theory of teaching
4.2.2.3. teaching and learning are inextricably linked
4.2.2.4. students become an integral part of the learning process
4.2.2.5. use of questioning
4.2.2.6. all teaching begins with the active participation of the student and results in some form of growth
4.2.2.7. more difficult to assess and measure educational outcomes
4.2.2.8. tends to reject the scientific model of teaching and instead views teaching as an artistic endeavor
5. Politics of Education
5.1. Purposes
5.1.1. 1. INTELLECTUAL
5.1.1.1. a. to teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, & math
5.1.1.1.1. b. transmit specific knowledge
5.1.2. 2. POLITICAL
5.1.2.1. a. to inculcate allegiance to the existing political order (patriotism)
5.1.2.1.1. b. to prepare people who will participate in this political order (political democracies)
5.1.3. 3. SOCIAL
5.1.3.1. a. help solve social problems
5.1.3.1.1. b. to work as one of many institutions, such as the family and the church (or synagogue) to ensure social cohesion
5.1.4. 4. ECONOMIC
5.1.4.1. a. to prepare students for their later occupational roles
5.1.4.1.1. b. to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor
5.2. Perspectives
5.2.1. 1. CONSERVATIVE
5.2.1.1. the role of the school...
5.2.1.1.1. a. providing the necessary educational training to ensure that the most talented and hard-working individuals receive the tools necessary to maximize economic & social productivity
5.2.1.2. explanations of unequal performance
5.2.1.2.1. a. individuals or groups of students rise and fall on their own intelligence, hard work, and initiative and that achievement is based on hard work
5.2.1.3. definition of educational problems
5.2.1.3.1. a. decline of standards - lowering academic standards and reducing educational quality
5.2.2. 2. LIBERAL
5.2.3. 3. RADICAL
6. History of U.S. Education
6.1. REFORM MOVEMENT
6.1.1. Equality Reform
6.1.1.1. GI Bill after WWII was considered "the most ambitious venture in mass higher education that had ever been attempted be any society" according to Ravitch
6.1.1.1.1. 1896 - Plessy v Ferguson, the court upheld a Louisiana law segregating railway passengers by race, claiming "separate but equal"
6.2. HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION
6.2.1. Conservative Perspective - Diane Ravitch and E.D. Hirsch Jr. believed the historical pursuit of social and political objectives resulted in significant harm to the traditional academic goals of schooling
6.2.1.1. Ravitch argued that the preoccupation with using education to solve social problems has led to the erosion of educational excellence
7. Equality of Opportunity
7.1. Impact Educational Outcome
7.1.1. class:
7.1.1.1. Education is expensive and the longer a student stays in school, the more likely they will need parental financial support. Schools represent the value of the middle and upper class. More emphasis is placed on high academic achievement. Working an underclass families are more likely to underachieve, drop out, and resist the curriculum of the school.
7.1.2. race:
7.1.2.1. Drop out rate for 16-24 years old: Whites 5.2% African Americans 9.3% Hispanics 17.6%
7.1.2.1.1. 17 year olds reading at the intermediate level: Whites 89% African Americans 66% Hispanics 70% (United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003)
7.1.3. gender:
7.1.3.1. Females: less likely to drop out of school, higher level of reading and writing proficiencies, more attending post-secondary institutions
7.1.3.1.1. Males: mathematics proficiency, more likely to score higher on SATs, attending more academically and socially prestigious postsecondary institutions
7.2. Coleman Study (1982) Responses
7.2.1. 1. The responses centered on the interpretations attached to the magnitude of the finding. What Coleman and his associates saw as significant, others saw as nearly insignificant. Coleman and his colleagues found that private schools were more effective learning environments than public schools because the placed more emphasis on academic activities and because private schools demand more from their students than do public schools. Jencks (1985) believed the differences that do exist between public and Catholic schools are statistically significant, but in terms of significant differences in learning, the results are negligible. Alexander and Pallas (1983) echoed a similar interpretation.
7.2.2. 2. Borman & Dowling (2010) interpreted the Coleman Study as where as individual goes to school is often related to their race and socioeconomic background, but the racial and socioeconomics composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individual's race and class. They argue that race and class are predictors of academic success. This interpretation also argued that school segregation based on race and socioeconomic status and within school interactions dominated by middle-class values are largely responsible for gaps in student achievement. The study concludes that education reform must focus on elimination the high level of segregation in the US school system.
8. Educational Inequality
8.1. Cultural Deprivation Theory
8.1.1. 1. Working class and nonwhite families often lack the cultural resources, such as books and other educational stimuli and thus arrive at school at a significant disadvantage.
8.1.2. 2. Educationally disadvantaged students who achieve poorly because they have not been raised to acquire the skills and dispositions required for satisfactory academic achievement.
8.2. School-Centered Explanations
8.2.1. 1. School Financing
8.2.1.1. Vast differences in school funding between affluent suburbs and poor inner cities because of portioning of tax dollars. Schools rely on local, state, and federal sources for revenue with a large percentage coming from local taxes. Local taxes are mainly comprised of property taxes which are significantly higher in more affluent communities.
8.2.2. 2. Curriculum and Pedagogic Practices
8.2.2.1. Theorists believe that significant differences between the culture and climate of schools in lower socioeconomic and higher socioeconomic communities. Bernstein's theory is similar to Bowles and Gintis's view that the type of schooling corresponds to the social class of students in a particular school socializing their different places in society. Researchers throughout the years all document important class-related differences in school climate, curriculum, and pedagogic practices.
8.2.3. 3. Curriculum and Ability Grouping
8.2.3.1. often referred to as tracking by ability or curriculum tracking - students are divided both by ability and curriculum, with different groups of students often receiving considerably different types of education within the same school. Some researchers find the practice unfair and discriminatory while others believe it is an important way of teaching all academic ranges of students. The ongoing debate is how to keep the practice of tracking fair for all students.
8.2.4. 4. Gender and Schooling
8.2.4.1. Feminists believe the differences between men and women are cultural, not biological, thus challenging the unequal treatment of women in all aspects of society. They agree that schooling often limits the educational opportunities and life changes of women by portraying stereotypical roles of men and women, "silencing women", reinforces traditional gender roles and expectations, and schools often reinforce gender inequality.
9. Educational Reform
9.1. School-based
9.1.1. 1. School-Business Partnership
9.1.1.1. Businesses began to partner with schools in the 1980's to revitalize the US economy. By providing money to schools, businesses were investing in their futures. Also business could "adopt" a school by offering scholarships to poor students to attend college. There is little evidence to prove this type of reform has contributed to a significant improvement in schools.
9.1.2. 2. Teacher Quality
9.1.2.1. NCLB requires all schools have highly qualified teachers in every classroom. Most teachers meet the highly qualified standard, but data does indicate a significant number of classrooms staffed by teachers who are not highly qualified in the particular subject they teach. School improvement reformers have stressed the existence of teacher tenure, and seniority based transfers, and layoff provisions in union contracts as a primary factor for preventing an improvement of teacher quality.
9.2. Societal, Economic, Community, or Political
9.2.1. 1. School Finance Reform
9.2.1.1. Court cases have determined extra funding was to be distributed to schools to provide additional programs in order to eliminate disadvantages within poorer school districts. In addition to equalizing funding, the court recognized that factors outside schools had to be addressed as well. Educational reforms have demonstrated the potential to improve schools for low-income and minority children, especially in urban areas.
9.2.2. 2. Full Service and Community Schools
9.2.2.1. Another way to attack educational inequality is to examine and plan to educate not only the whole child, but also the whole community. Full-service schools focus on meeting students' and their families needs in a coordinated and collaborative fashion. These schools are to improve at-risk neighborhoods by repairing the larger social and economic problems as a mean to improve education. There is no evidence full-service schools affect student achievement.