1. Sociological Perspectives
1.1. Theoretical Perspectives
1.1.1. 1. Functionalism: In a highly integrated, well-functioning society, schools socialize students into the appropriate values, and sort and select students according to their abilities. Then, educational reform is supposed to create structures, programs, and curricula that are technically advanced, rational, and encourage social unity. Functionalists view society as a machine, with one part working with another to make society work. Consensus is the norm and conflict represents a breakdown of shared values.
1.1.2. 2. Conflict Theory: The view that social order is not based on a collective agreement, but the ability of dominant groups to impose their will onto subordinate groups through force, cooptation, and manipulation. Society is held together by economic, political, cultural, and military power. Conflict sociologists emphasize struggle, with one against another.
1.1.3. 3. Interactionalism: Primarily critiques and extensions of the functional and conflict perspectives, stating that the theories are very abstract and very generally analyzed. Interactional theories go deeper to examine the interactions of students and teachers and the commonplace, everyday things that are not often studied, in an aim to create more meaningful theories.
1.2. Effects of schooling with greatest impact
1.2.1. 1.Teacher behavior: Teachers hold many different roles in schools, but regardless of what they may be doing, they are always role models. Teacher behavior can make a major impact on student performance and motivation.
1.2.2. 2. Student peer groups and alienation: When students are placed by their fellow students into certain "groups", this can make students feel either included and accepted, or alienated. Either one can have a big impact over their school experience.
1.2.3. 3. Inadequate schools: Private schools and suburban schools systems have significant advantages over urban schools in poor areas with minority children.
1.2.4. 4. Gender: Often in schools, girls although they often start ahead of boys in cognitive and social aspects, by the end of high school, girls have lower self-esteem and goals than boys.
1.2.5. 5. Employment: An education, high school or college can go a long way in gaining employment with a higher income, although does not significantly correlate with job performance or skills.
2. Philosophy of Education
2.1. World view of student-centered philosophy-Pragmatism: American philosophy from the late 19th century which is built on encouraging people to find solutions to a problem to create the desired outcome.
2.1.1. Generic notions-Instrumentalism: pragmatic relationship between school and society, experimentalism: application of ideas to practice on an experimental basis,
2.1.2. Key researchers: Founders-George Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, earlier possible pragmatists-Frances Bacon, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, later researchers-John Dewey
2.1.3. Goal of education: Schools should encourage students to develop and expand on ideas, give them the knowledge needed to improve social order, and prepare students for life in a democratic society.
2.1.4. Role of teachers: Teachers are more of a facilitator who encourages and offers assistance and suggestions to students, and teachers also plan and implement curriculum.
2.1.5. Method of instruction: In groups and individually, using problem-solving and inquiry methods, integration of field-trips and projects, and a less formally structured classroom
2.1.6. Curriculum: Integrated curriculum, utilizing many subjects to solve problems related to a particular subject matter.
3. Schools as Organizations
3.1. Major stakeholders for Crossville, AL
3.1.1. State Senators: Sen. Clay Scofield (R-9)
3.1.2. House of Representatives: Rep. Becky Nordgren (R-29)
3.1.3. State Superintendant: Michael Sentance
3.1.4. Representative on state school board: Mary Scott Hunter (District 08)
3.1.5. Local Superintendant: Dr. Jason Barnett
3.1.6. Local school board: DeKalb County Board of Education
3.2. Elements of change
3.2.1. Conflict: A necessity for change, hidden problems or issues may arise which require staff involvement to resolve.
3.2.2. The learning of new behaviors: building trust and communication, new relationships, emerging leaders, and learning how to communicate, collaborate, and resolve conflict effectively.
3.2.3. Team building throughout the entire school: fostering relationships within the school staff and shared decision-making.
3.2.4. An interrelated process and content: The outcomes of projects and changes attempted can depend on the steps a team takes to get to the outcome. The process is as important as the heart of the matter.
4. Equality of Opportunity
4.1. Educational outcomes based on:
4.1.1. Class
4.1.1.1. Students in different social classes have different types of educations and experiences. Students in lower-class families are more likely to drop out of school and their families generally have lower expectations for them. Teachers tend to think more highly of upper-class students. The higher a student's social class, the more likely they are to attend college.
4.1.2. Race
4.1.2.1. Minority races still have a higher drop-out rate than white students, they also have lower reading proficiencies and lower SAT scores, and do not receive the same educational opportunities and rewards are less.
4.1.3. Gender
4.1.3.1. Females today are less likely to drop out of school, have a higher reading proficiency, and have a higher number of individuals attending postsecondary institutions. Men have higher math scores and postsecondary institutions attended by men are more prestigious, Overall, educational gender differences between men and women has been greatly reduced over the last few decades.
4.2. Responses to Coleman Study (1982)
4.2.1. 1.
4.2.1.1. While the differences between public school and private schools may be significant, the outcome of students is insignificant.
4.2.2. 2.
4.2.2.1. The school an individual goes to is usually related to race and socioeconomic background, but the racial and socioeconomic composition of a school usually had a greater effect on achievement than the individual's race and class.
5. Educational Reform
5.1. School-based reforms
5.1.1. 1.Privatization: The lines between public and private schools became blurred in the 1990s, with private education companies becoming increasingly involved in public education, non-profit companies taking over management of failing schools and districts, and for-profit companies having contracts under No Child Left Behind.
5.1.2. 2. School-to work programs: Formerly school-business partnerships, which based vocational emphasis on non-college-bound students to prepare them for the work force. Incorporates school-based learning, work-based learning, and connecting activities.
5.2. Other reforms (societal, economical, community or political)
5.2.1. 1. Full service and community schools: A goal to education not only the student but the whole community. Focus is on meeting the student and family needs in a collaborative effort of schools and community centers.
5.2.2. 2. School Finance Reforms: In 1990, court rulings mandated equalized funding of urban and suburban schools, and in 1998 states were required to implement a package of supplemental programs.
6. Politics of Education
6.1. Purposes of Education
6.1.1. 1. Intellectual: to teach basic skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics, to teach specific knowledge in other subjects (literature, history, science, etc.), and to help students acquire higher-level thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.
6.1.2. 2. Political: to instill patriotism, prepare citizens who will participate in political order (democracies, elections), to help assimilate diverse cultural groups into a common political order, and to teach children the basic laws of the society.
6.1.3. 3. Social: help solve social problems, encourage many to work together as one, ensure social cohesion, and promote socialization, which is considered a key to the stability of a society.
6.1.4. 4. Economic: to prepare and train students for various occupational roles later in life. This purpose can vary from school to school, but at least plays an indirect role in most schools.
6.2. Conservative Perspective
6.2.1. 1. The role of the school: The conservative perspective views the role of the school as providing the most hard-working individuals with the necessary tools to succeed and be socially productive. Schools mold children into adult roles necessary to maintain social order, and schools also teach cultural traditions through the curriculum. Success by individual merit is both encouraged and rewarded. The conservative perspective sees the role of the school as essential to economic productivity and social stability.
6.2.2. 2. Explanations of unequal performance: The conservative perspective views achievements as based on hard work and sacrifice. Students fail and achieve based on their own intelligence, hard work, and initiative. The school system is designed to allow for the opportunity to succeed, and if individuals fail, it might be due to the individual, rather than the fault of the school.
6.2.3. 3. Definition of Educational Problems: The conservative perspective arguments for the definition of educational problems include lowered academic standards and reduced educational quality in response to demands for greater equality (decline of standards), weakened curriculum in the heritage of American and Western civilization in response to demands for multicultural education (decline of cultural literacy), loss of traditional role of teaching moral standards and values in response to demands for cultural relativism (decline of values), loss of traditional disciplinary function in response to demands for individuality and freedom (decline of authority), and the stifling of schools by bureaucracy and inefficiency due to being state controlled.
7. History of U.S. Education
7.1. Reform Movement
7.1.1. In my opinion, the effort by Horace Mann, who fought for free public education was the most influential reform. This was where the history of public schools and education began.
7.2. Historical Interpretation
7.2.1. Democratic-Liberal School: Democratic-liberals hold the belief that the history of U.S. education involves providing equal educational opportunities for all, not just the privileged, as they believe the conservatives would like schools to be. They also have a more optimistic view of the history of U.S. education.
8. Curriculum and Pedagogy
8.1. Developmentalist curriculum: Student-centered teaching based on the needs and interests of each student at their particular developmental stage rather than the needs of society. Teachers are a facilitator of student growth.
8.2. Dominant traditions of teaching
8.2.1. 1. Mimetic: The purpose of education is to transmit specific knowledge to students, particularly through the didactic method.
8.2.2. 2. Transformative: The purpose of education is to meaningfully change the student (intellectually, creatively, spiritually, and emotionally). This method is more multidimensional and rejects an authoritarian relationship between student and teacher.
9. Educational Inequality
9.1. Cultural Deprivation Theory
9.1.1. 1. Working-class and non-white students often lack cultural resources, thus arriving at school disadvantaged, lacking the intellectual and social skills needed for success.
9.1.2. 2.The poor have a deprived culture, lacking values of the middle-class, therefore do not see the importance of school as a means to future success.
9.2. School-centered explanations for educational inequality
9.2.1. 1. School financing: The funding of public schools is not equal, with the more affluent communities being able to provide higher per-pupil spending.
9.2.2. 2. Effective School Research: Suggests that there are school-centered processes to help explain unequal educational achievement.
9.2.3. 3. Curriculum and Pedagogic Practices: There are significant differences in the social climate and culture of schools in lower and higher socioeconomic communities which have an effect over curriculum and pedagogic practices.
9.2.4. 4. Gender and Schooling: Schooling can limit educational and life chances of women in a number of ways, and school organization, curriculum, and pedagogic practices need to be changed to more adequately address the needs of females.