1. Politics of Education
1.1. Purposes of Education
1.1.1. Intellectual
1.1.1.1. 1. Intellectual:Purpose is to teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and mathematics to transmit specific knowledge and to help students acquire higher-order of thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.
1.1.2. Political
1.1.2.1. 2. Political: Purpose is to inculcate allegiance to the existing political order (patriotism); to prepare citizens who who will participate in the political order (political democracies); to help assimilate diverse cultural groups into a common political order; and to teach children the basic laws of society.
1.1.3. Social
1.1.3.1. 3. Social: Purpose is help social problems; to work as one of many institutions, such as the family and church (or synagogue) to ensure social cohesion; and to socialize children into the various roles, behaviors and values of society. This is the process referred to by socialists as socialization which is a key ingredient to the stability of any society.
1.1.4. Economic
1.1.4.1. 4. Economic: The purpose is to prepare students for their later occupational roles and to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor. The degree to which schools directly prepare students to work varies from society to society, but most schools at least have an indirect role in the process.
1.2. Perspectives
1.3. Role of the School
1.3.1. 1. Conservative Perspective: This perspective sees the role of the school as providing the necessary educational training to ensure that the most talented hard-working individuals receive the tools necessary to maximize economic and social productivity. Developed originally by William Graham Sumner.
1.3.2. 2. Liberal Perspective: The liberal perspective also stresses training and socialization as a function of the school, but it sees it a little differently than the conservative perspective. It instead strives for all students to have the necessary education to function in society not just the strongest students. It stresses the pluralistic nature of U.S. society and teaches students to respect cultural diversity so that they understand and can fit in a diverse society. It enables individuals to be creative in his/her own talents and also stresses the need for individuals to participate in a democratic society. It's origin was way back in the 20th century with U.S, philosopher John Dewey.
1.3.3. 3. Radical Perspective:The radical perspective has a different view than the others.They believe that the schools reproduce the unequal economic conditions of the capitalist economy and socialize individuals to accept the legitimacy of society. Through what radicals term social and cultural reproduction, the schools role is to perpetuate society and to serve the interest of those with economic wealth and political power. Most importantly radicals believe that schools prepare students with different economical backgrounds for different roles in society. They believe that schools should reduce inequality of educational results and provide upward social mobility. Karl Marx was the early adopter of radicalism.
1.4. Explanations of Unequal Performance
1.4.1. A. Conservatives argue that individuals rise and fall on their own intelligence, hard work, and initiative, and that achievement is based on hard work and sacrifice. The school system from this vantage point is designed to allow individuals to succeed.
1.4.2. B. The liberal perspective argues that individuals begin school with different life chances and therefore some groups have significantly more advantages than others. Therefore society must attempt through policy and program to equalize the playing field.
1.4.3. C. Radicals, like liberals believe that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds begin school with unequal opportunities. Unlike liberals the radicals believe that this is caused by the economic system not the education system and can only be fixed through the political-economic system.
1.5. Definition of Educational Problems
1.5.1. A. Conservative
1.5.1.1. 1) The decline of standards
1.5.1.2. 2) Watered down curriculum thus weakened the schools ability to pass on the heritage of Western and American civilizations
1.5.1.3. 3) Decline of values or of civilization. Loss of teaching moral standards and values
1.5.1.4. 4) Loss of traditional disciplinary function thus schools often became chaotic. This is referred to as decline of authority.
1.5.1.5. 5) Schools are stifled by bureaucracy and inefficiency.
1.5.2. B. Liberal
1.5.2.1. 1) Schools have too often limited the life chances of poor and minority children therefore the problem of underachievement by these groups is a critical issue
1.5.2.2. 2) Schools place too much emphasis on discipline and authority, thus limiting their role in helping students develop as individuals.
1.5.2.3. 3) The difference in quality and climate between urban and suburban schools and, most specifically, between schools with students of low socioeconomic backgrounds and high socioeconomic backgrounds is a central problem related to inequalities of results.
1.5.2.4. 4) The traditional curriculum leaves out the diverse cultures of the groups that comprise the pluralistic society.
1.5.3. C. Radical Perspective
1.5.3.1. 1) The educational system has failed the poor, minorities, and women through classist, racist, sexist, and homophobic policies.
1.5.3.2. 2) Schools have stifled critical understanding of the problems of society through a curriculum and teaching practices that promote conformity.
1.5.3.3. 3) The traditional curriculum is classist, racist, sexist, and homophobic and leaves out the cultures, histories and voices of the oppressed.
1.5.3.4. 4) In general, the educational system promotes inequality of both opportunity and results.
2. History of U.S. Education
2.1. Reform Movement
2.1.1. 1. The Rise of the Common School
2.1.1.1. A. Happened during the period of 1820 to 1860- changes took place with unprecedented speed
2.1.1.2. B. Tried to address societal problems as slavery, mental illness, intemperance, and pacifism thus believing that the road to secular paradise was through education.
2.1.1.3. C. By 1820 it was noted that the schools were not functioning properly and the vast majority of Americans were not surprisingly illiterate.
2.1.1.4. D. Horace Mann of Massachusetts led the struggle for free public education. Massachusetts legislature created the first board of education it in 1837, Horace Mann became its first secretary an office he held for 11 years.
2.1.1.5. E. Many school boards have been modeled after the one that Horace Mann served in for years.
2.1.1.6. F. First state normal school or teacher training school was established in Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839.
2.1.1.7. G. These schools were established for stability and order and the concern for social mobility.
2.1.1.8. H. Even during this time frame Mann was faced with multi cultural differences through the migration of individuals from all over. he used this as an opportunity to get support from the wealthy through touting that the school was preparation for citizenship as well as the "balance wheel --the great equalizer of men."
2.1.1.9. I. Many liberals and conservatives view Mann as a great educator of man but radicals take issue with it pointing to schools as a pernicious device for teaching skills like hygiene, punctuality and rudimentary skills that would create docile workers.
2.1.1.10. J. Regardless of what people think we can't discount the fact that this was the start of reform and a movement toward building our public school systems.
2.2. Historical Interoretation
2.2.1. A. Conservative Perspectives
2.2.1.1. 1) U.S. students knew very little and that U.S. schools were mediocre
2.2.1.2. 2) Conservative critics like Bennett, Finn, Jr., Ravitch,, Hirsch, Jr., and Bloom all pointed to the failure of so=called progressive education to fulfill its lofty social goals without sacrificing academic quality.
2.2.1.3. 3) Ravitch and Hirsch supported the democratic-liberal goal of equality of opportunity and mobility through education but believed that the historical pursuit of social and political objectives resulted in significant harm to traditional academic goals of schooling.
2.2.1.4. 4) Ravitch's argument that the preoccupation with using education to solve social problems has not worked in his book "The Troubled Crusade" he believes that it has simultaneously led to erosion of educational excellence.
2.2.1.5. 5) Ravitch believes the curriculum ought to be fair and nonracist she also argues that multiculturalism are often historically incorrect and the fact the heritage of our civilization is Western.
2.2.1.6. 6) Ravitch understands the conflictual nature of the U.S. history and praises the schools for being part of a large-scale social improvement while damning them for losing their academic standards in the process.
2.2.1.7. 7) Hirsch blames the schools for valuing skills over content.
2.2.1.8. 8) Bennett called for a traditional Western curriculum
2.2.1.9. 9) All of these conservatives have one thing in common and that is the vision that U.S. Education has resulted in the dilution of academic excellence.
3. Sociology of Education
3.1. Theoretical Perspectives
3.1.1. Functionalism
3.1.1.1. Functional sociologists begin with a picture of society that stresses the interdependence of the social system. They view society as a king of machine where one part articulates with another to produce the dynamic energy required to make society work. Emile Durkheim was one of the first to embrace this theory.
3.1.2. Conflict Theory
3.1.2.1. Some sociologist argue that the social order is not based on some collective agreement. but on the ability of dominant groups to impose their will on subordinate groups through force, cooptation, and manipulation. In this view the, the glue of society is economic, political, cultural, and military power. They do not see the relationship between school and society as unproblematic or straightforward. Whereas functionalist emphasize cohesion in explaining social order, conflict socialists emphasize struggle. From a conflict point of view schools are like battlefields. Karl Marx is the intellectual founder of the conflict school in social education.
3.1.3. Interactionalism
3.1.3.1. Interactional theories about the relation of school and society are primarily critiques and extensions of the functional and conflict perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that functional and conflict theories are very abstract, and emphasize structure and process at a very general level of analysis.
3.1.3.2. 5 Effects of Schooling
3.1.3.2.1. 1. Knowledge and attitudes- Generally speaking it is found that the higher the social class background of the student, the higher his achievement level. Many researchers like Jenks and Coleman believe that differences between schools account for very little of the differences in student achievement. However, some researchers like Edmonds believe the opposite.
3.1.3.2.2. 2. Employment- Most students believe that graduating from college will lead to greater employment. Research has shown that larger organizations require high-levels of education for white collar, managerial, or administrative jobs. The amount of education does not necessarily that the educated employees will do a better job. Possession of a college degree is strictly related to a higher income. However, women still earn less than men among educated individuals.
3.1.3.2.3. 3. Education and Mobility- education mobility is the great equalizer in the great status of race. There are differences of opinion in whether education is the great equalizer of mobility. Many researchers have differences of opinion. I like Rosenblums analogy of likening mobility to tournament selection in which you can't move on to the next level unless you keep winning thus keep obtaining credentials in education.
3.1.3.2.4. 4. Inside the schools- larger schools may offer nicer facilities but larger schools are also more bureaucratic and may restrain initiative. Smaller schools may allow more student and teacher freedom, but small schools often lack resources. Curriculum is different in schools. What curriculum a student studies has a direct impact on where they place in college.
3.1.3.2.5. 5. Teacher Behavior- Teachers have a huge impact on student learning and behavior. Teachers are models for students and they wear many hats which could be the cause of burnout for students. Teachers set standards for students and influence self-esteem and sense of efficacy. In a study by Rosenthal and Jacobson, teachers expectations were found to have directly impacted their achievement level. Persell did a study that showed that when teachers demanded more from their students and praised them more , students felt better about themselves.
4. Philosophy of Education
4.1. World View of Student Centered Philosophy Of Education
4.2. Describe the particular world view of student-centered philosophy of education (pragmatism or existentialism).-
4.2.1. 1. Genetic Notions as seen by Plato appear to be more student-centered in that he believed that students should be taught based on their level. What I mean by that is that he believed that a brighter student should focus on ideas and data collection and those that function on a more concrete level should assume roles necessary for the city-state, such as craftsmen, etc. He basically believed that those that function on a more abstract level should rule. Aristotle's Systematic Theory of Logic tested the logic of statements people make. Francis Bacon was part of Modern Realism during the Renaissance. Bacon was troubled by the reliance of classical realists on a prior or preconceived notion upon which thinkers deduced truths. He was able to come up with a method that of starting with observations based on Aristotle's observable data. For contemporary realists the goal of education is to help individuals understand and then apply the principles of science to help solve the problems plaguing the modern world. Aristotle encouraged educators that this could be obtained through science. Teachers play a huge role in a students life. Teachers should be able to transmit the basic knowledge necessary to their students for the continuance of the human race. To do that, they must present ideas in a clear and concise manner while being sure that there is a definitive way to judge a students work. Again, in a student-centered classroom students students should grasp the ideas through specific characteristics of particular manifestations.this type of method of instruction supports competency-based assessments. In all of this it is supported by realists. Realists believe that the basic educational courses, math, writing, reading, science, and humanities is what is necessary for a strong foundation and for students to be part of society. E.D. Hirsch has recently sparked a debate on whether cultural literacy would work best. Others have come to the table with similar notions.
5. Schools as Organizations
5.1. Major Stakeholders in YOUR District
5.1.1. The major stakeholders in my district are as follows:
5.1.1.1. Federal Alabama senators:
5.1.1.1.1. Richard Shelby
5.1.1.1.2. Luther Strange
5.1.1.2. Federal Alabama House of Representatives. My District is District 8:
5.1.1.2.1. Terri Collins
5.1.1.3. Alabama State Senate is made of 35. My District is District 8:
5.1.1.3.1. Steve Livingston
5.1.1.4. Board of Education, District 8 Representative:
5.1.1.4.1. Mary Scott Hunter
5.1.1.5. District 8 State Superintendent:
5.1.1.5.1. Jude Lugo, James Clemons High School
5.1.1.5.2. Lauryn Malone, Buckhorn High School
5.1.1.6. Madison County Superintendent District 8:
5.1.1.6.1. Matt Massey
5.1.1.7. Madison County Board of Education Members:
5.1.1.7.1. Nathan Curry- District 1
5.1.1.7.2. Angie Bates- District 2
5.1.1.7.3. Mary Louis Stowe- District 3
5.1.1.7.4. Dave Weis- District 4
5.1.1.7.5. Shere Rucker- District 5
5.2. Elements of Change
5.2.1. School Processes
5.2.1.1. The number of school districts have changed over the years. In the early 1930's there were more public school districts in the U.S. approximately 128,000, but over the years this number has diminished to approximately 13,709. The consolidation process is partly due to the elimination of single-teacher schools.
5.2.1.2. The number of students has increased in public schools over the years as well. In 2009-2010, the average number of pupils per school was 450 at the elementary school level and 856 at the secondary level compared to elementary in the late 1930's of 91.
5.2.1.3. School sizes have changed and the number of pupils per classroom is getting larger as well. The average public school classroom is 16 whereas 80 years ago it was 34 in elementary schools. At the high school level it was 22 80 years ago and 16 today. These statistics reveal that there was a considerable amount of consolidation and centralization in the last 80 years.
5.2.2. School Cultures
5.2.2.1. School cultures have changed over the years. Depending on the state there are a mixed bag of cultural variations. In 2010 , 53.5 percent of the students in elementary, middle, and high school were white. However, racial composition is masked by this percentage. 16 f the 50 states have less than 50 percent white students and 10 states have almost no minority students. Some of the larger states (California, Texas, and New York) have more of a racially mixed student body. There has also been a large percentage of residential segregation due to nonminority families moving out to the suburbs from the cities.
5.2.2.2. Private schools tend to attract students from affluent families that have a commitment to education. There are approximately 28,220 elementary and secondary private schools in the U.S. which enroll of 5.5 million students. They make up 25% of all elementary and secondary students and educate 10 percent of the student population. Surprisingly enough there is a tremendous amount of diversity in the private school sector. Most private schools have a religious affiliation.
5.2.2.3. School cultures are extremely vulnerable to disruption and that continuity is often maintained by the use of authority according to Waller. However, without the compliance of students this could not happen. Wertz examined the school culture and found that there was chronic tension because of conflicting goals. The teachers pedagogic goals are difficult to reconcile with the students social goals and Administrators often have administrative goals that are not in line with the teachers or the students goals.
5.2.2.4. The cultures of any schools is the product of the political environment that has allowed the schools to be viable. Local school boards often struggle with keeping up with the demand of teachers and their local unions; many of these conflicts (pay, teaching conditions, productivity, and professional standards) are resolved through negotiation.
5.2.2.5. Changing the culture of schools requires, patience, skill, and good will.
6. Curriculum & Pedagogy
6.1. Curriculum Theory
6.1.1. Humanist Curriculum is what I advocate for.
6.1.1.1. My philosophy for teaching is based on the idealist approach and the humanist curriculum supports that approach. I strongly believe that English, math science, history and foreign languages is the foundation of a students education as does Ravitch. I am certainly not saying that other subjects shouldn't be taught but that the aforementioned is crucial to the success of the student. I don't care if one is college bound or not in order to function in society I believe that these subjects are the foundation for becoming a successful worker on any level.
6.2. 2 Dominant Traditions of Teaching
6.2.1. 1. The mimetic tradition which is based on the teacher being the person with the knowledge and is transferring information to the student without student input and the student being the learner who is taking information in. It takes into account that the teacher is the knower in the realationship between the two and the student is the learner thus the student does not know what the teacher knows and can not add value to the learning process.
6.2.2. 2. The transformative tradition which I think is most like the model that I will use in the classroom takes into account the fact that students need to be changed in some meaningful way. Supporters of this tradition do not see the transfer of knowledge as being the only proponent to learning. In this tradition they reject the authoritative relationship between teacher and student and instead argue that teaching and learning are inextricably linked. Teaching involves more than just spewing out knowledge and expecting the student to digest it but it also involves a conversation and dialogue between the two.
7. Equality of Opportunity and Educational Outcomes
7.1. Educational Outcomes: Class, Race and Gender
7.1.1. Class: Students from different socio-economical backgrounds will experience multiple different outcomes in their pursuit of educational attainment. Students coming from wealthier families have a more likely chance to finish school and college than those coming from working-class families. It's also understood that upper-middle class/wealthy families have a high expectation for their children to achieve their goals. Studies and data show that the number of books in a family home and the ability to use standard English because of these books is an "educational asset". Teacher's are found thinking more highly of students that come from middle/upper class backgrounds leading to labeling of students. However, students coming from these backgrounds have more emphasis placed on high "academic achievement". In summary social class and students academic achievement interelate.
7.1.2. Race- "An individual's race has a direct impact on how much education he or she is likely to achieve." Statistics from the Dept. of Education regarding 16-24 year old's showed 5.2% of white, 9.3% of African American, and 17.6 % of Hispanic-Americans students are likely to drop out of school. Additionally, reading level proficiency for 17 yr old's show that 89% of white students, 66% of African-American, and 701% of Hispanic-American's are reading at the intermediate level. This shows that race is a link to education, SAT scores, and students being awarded scholarships for college. As a result of this study/data it shows minorities do not receive the same educational opportunities as their white counterparts.
7.1.3. Gender- In the past, a student's gender was directly related to his/her educational attainment. Evidence has shown that women are better students than men but were not as likely afforded the same level of education. Females are less likely to drop out of school, and have a a higher level of reading and writing proficiency. However, females are more proficient in math/science. In teh area of math, males are more likely to score higher on the SAT than females. Data from the US, UK, Canada, and Australia indicate that girls have caught up to boys in almost all academic areas. This is gender as correlation between educational and occupational attainment.
7.2. Coleman Study 1982
7.2.1. 1. Coleman and his associates argued that private schools were more effective learning environments than public schools because of the emphasis placed on academics and their discipline. However the "Response to Coleman" by Jencks 1985 said although differences exists between private (Catholic) and public schools, the differences in learning; the results are negligible.
7.2.2. 2. In the second "Response to Coleman", where a student attends school is often related to their race and socioeconomic background, but racial and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than their race and class.
8. Explanations of Educational Inequality
8.1. Cultural Differences Theory
8.1.1. 1. Cultural difference theorists agree that there are cultural and family differences between working class and nonwhite students, and white middle-class students. They are of the mindset that working class students may arrive at school with cultural differences that prevent them from having the skills and attitudes required by schools. The odd thing is that although this is the case the theorists do not blame nonwhites and working class families for the educational problems. They instead attribute the problems to social forces such as racism, discrimination, and unequal life chances. Ogbu argues that African-American children don't do as well in school because they adapt to their oppressed background. He also believes that these students should deny their own backgrounds and adapt to the dominant culture. Bowles and Gintis theory is close to Ogbu's macrosociological perspective suggest that working-class students adapt to the unequal aspects of the class structure.Bourdieu and Passeron and Bernstein point out the ways in which class and cultural differences are reflected in schools. Bernstein says that cultural and class differences are a product of an unequal economic system and that schools reward middle-class communication codes and not working-class. Bourdieu believes that more affluent families give their children access to cultural capital and social capital.
8.1.2. 2. A second type of cultural difference theory sees working-class and nonwhites as resisting the dominant culture of the schools; it is basically stating that they reject the white middle-class culture of academic success and embrace a different, often anitschool culture; one that is opposed to school the way that it currently exists. Willis' research in England showed that working-class boys rejected middle-class values and embraced the working-class culture, which eschews the values of schooling. They make a conscious decision to reject schooling and resist academic success which leads to drop-outs and working on a factory floor of which they think is where they belong. Ogbu believes that teh subordinate classes reject schooling as they believe it will have no value for them. Hurn says the problem with cultural difference theory is that it is too culturally relavistic. Rampant believes that for black that live in the projects the violence, drug abuse, and hopelessness are part of the problem.
8.1.2.1. School-Centered Explanations For Educational Inequality
8.1.2.1.1. 1. Financing- Jonathan Kozol (1991), in his muckraking book Savage Inequalities, compared public schools in affluent suburbs to public schools in poor inner cities. He documented that there was vast differences in funding and called for equality in funding. The majority of funds come from state and local taxes and property taxes are based on the property value and since property value is higher in affluent neighborhoods these communities are able to give more to the public schools in their area. However in Serrano vs. Priest (1971), the California Supreme Court ruled the system of unequal financing between wealthy and poor districts unconstitutional. It dd not however rule that property taxes use for funding of local schools was unconstitutional thus the government has not intervened at the federal level.
8.1.2.1.2. 2. Between School Differences- The effective research points to how differences in what is often termed school climates affect academic performance. Bernstien (1990), examined the situation in England suggested that schools in working-class neighborhoods are far more likely to have authoritarian and teacher-directed pedagogic practices, and to have a vocationally or socially efficiency curriculum at the secondary level. In contrast schools in middle-class communities are more likely to have less authoritative and more student-centered pedagogic practices and to have a humanistic liberal arts college preparatory curriculum at the secondary level.
8.1.2.1.3. 3. Within-School Differences- The fact that different groups of students in the same schools perform very differently suggests that there may be school characteristics affecting these outcomes. Ability grouping and curriculum grouping is present--tracking. At the elementary school level students are divided into reading groups and separate classes based on teacher recommendations, standardize test scores and sometimes ascriptive characteristics such as race, class or gender.There is considerable debate among educators and researchers about the necessity effects and , and efficacy of tracking. Critics of tracking suggest that homogeneous groups result in unequal education for different groups with differences in academic outcome often do to the differences in school climate expectations pedagogic practices and curriculum between tracks.
8.1.2.1.4. 4. Gender- Feminist scholarship on schooling has attempted to understand ways in which the schools limit the educational and life chances of women. It has focused on achievement differences on women and administration, on the history of coeducation, on the relationship between pedagogic and attitudes and knowledge and other related issues. A significant aspect of this literature concerns gender differences and how men and women see the world, their cultural causes, and the role of schools perpetuating them or eliminating them. Carol Gilligan a psychologist at Harvard's graduate school of education has been one of the most influential feminist scholars working in the area of gender differences. Gilligan argued that women are more than likely to adopt a caring orientation, in part because they are socialized to do so, and that Kohlberg's hierarchical categories judge women unfairly. She continued that women do reason in a different voice and that this female voice as an important component of the human experience should not be devalued. Gilligian's work pointed to the differences in their relation to gender socialization and how society rewards men for male behavior and negatively effects women for female behavior. The argument that women are more caring and connected, and men more competitive and intellectual may reproduce sexist stereotypes that have historically justified the domestic roles of women. Despite these differences, feminist agree that schooling often limits the educational opportunities and life chances in a number of ways.
9. Educational Reform and School Improvement
9.1. School Based Reforms
9.1.1. 1. School Business-partnerships- Business leaders during the 1980's had become concerned about the nation's schools not producing the types of students needed to revitalize the U.S economy. Partnerships were created with schools and businesses with the most notable being created in 1982 in Boston, Massachusetts. However, there is little evidence that these schools are a significant improvement over current schools or as a means of reform these schools will address problems facing U.S. educators.
9.1.2. 2. School-to-Work programs- These programs were to provide opportunities to non-college bound students with a vocational emphasis that provide students with careers and skills lending to high wages upon completion of their studies. The School-to Work Act of 1994 was to provide seed money to states, local businesses, labor, government, educatation and community organizations o develop school-to work systems. However, it is felt that while this program had great intentions it has failed to reach its intended potential or fulfill its promise.
9.1.2.1. Describe two ways that impact education.
9.1.2.1.1. 1. Connecting School, community and Societal Reforms- Research conducted over a 0 year period by the Consortium for Chicago School Research at the University of Chicago demonstrates that a combination of school, community, and societal level reforms are necessary to reduce the achievement gap (Byrk et al., 2010). Their research argues that successful school reform must eb based on a number of essential supports, including;
9.1.2.1.2. 2. A theory of Educational Problems and Reforms. For the past decade, the dominant political definition of educational problems has been a conservative one, with the crisis in education defined in terms of the decline of standards and authority, and the putative mediocrity of U.S. schools and students. Thus, school improvement ought to be aimed at all three aspects of schools in the integrative realm, schools do need to improve their effectiveness in teaching basic skills and knowledge. there is some basic merit to the conservative claims about the need to raise standards for all U.S. students the preoccupation with excellence has unfortunately obscured other significant educational problems.