1. Chapter 2: The Politics of Education
1.1. The Four Purposes of Education
1.1.1. Intellectual purpose: to teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics; to help students acquire critical thinking skills
1.1.2. Political purpose: to instill allegiance to the existing political order (patriotism); prepare citizens who will participate in this political order; to help diverse cultural groups adopt the ideas of a common political order; teach children the laws of the society
1.1.3. Social purpose: to help solve social problems; to work as one of many institutions to ensure social cohesion; to help socialize children into various roles, behaviors, and values of the society
1.1.4. Economic purpose: to prepare students for their later occupational roles and to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor
1.2. The Conservative Perspective
1.2.1. Role of the School: to provide the necessary educational training to ensure the most talented and hard-working individuals receive the tools necessary to maximize economic and social productivity; socialize children into the adult roles necessary to maintain social order
1.2.2. Explanation of Unequal Performance: individuals or groups of students rise and fall on their own intelligence, hard work, and initiative; achievement is based on hard work and sacrifice; if individuals do not succeed, they are deficient in some manner or are a member of a group that is deficient
1.2.3. Definition of Educational Problems
1.2.3.1. Decline in Standards: schools lowered academic standards and reduced educational quality
1.2.3.2. Decline of Cultural Literacy: schools weakened the traditional curriculum and their ability to pass on the heritage of American and Western civilizations to children
1.2.3.3. Decline of Values or of Civilization: schools lost their traditional role of teaching moral standards and values
1.2.3.4. Decline of Authority: schools lost their traditional disciplinary function and often become chaotic
2. Chapter 7: Curriculum, Pedagogy, and the Transmission of Knowledge
2.1. Developmentalist curriculum
2.1.1. Developmentalists focus their attention on the development of children's emotional and behavioral qualities. This philosophy emphasized the process of teaching as well as the material being taught. The curriculum needs to be centered around the needs and interests of each child. The curriculum also needs to be flexible in order to accommodate the development of each child's individual capacity. This philosophy stresses the importance of relating schooling to the life experiences of each child. This will aid in making education come alive in a meaningful manner. With this curriculum, the teacher becomes a facilitator of student growth.
2.2. Dominant Traditions of Teaching
2.2.1. Mimetic Tradition
2.2.1.1. This tradition is based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to transmit specific knowledge to students. This tradition relies heavily on the didactic method. This method relies on lecture or presentation as the main form of communication. At the center of this tradition is the assumption that the educational process involves a relationship between the teacher and the students. The mimetic tradition stresses the importance of rational sequencing in the teaching process and assessment of the learning process.
2.2.2. Transformative Tradition
2.2.2.1. This tradition is based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to change the student in some meaningful way, including intellectually, creatively, spiritually, and emotionally. Educators who are proponents of this tradition do not see the transmission of knowledge as the sole component of education. Also, they deter the use of an authoritarian relationship between teacher and student. They argue that teaching and learning are linked, as well as the need for the student to become an integral part of the learning process.
3. Chapter 8: Equality of Opportunity and Educational Outcomes
3.1. Impacts on Educational Outcomes
3.1.1. Social Class: Social class is directly related to achievement and to educational attainment. There is a direct correlation between parental income and a child's performance on achievement tests. Studies show that class is related to achievement on reading tests and basic skills tests as well. Children from working-class and underclass families are more likely to underachieve, resist a school's curriculum, and drop out. In terms of entering college, it is more likely that students from middle- and upper-class families will continue their education and receive a degree.
3.1.2. Race: Although the Civil Rights movement made huge strides in equality, our society is still highly stratified by race. Also, there seems to be a direct correlation between race and class. An individual's race has a direct impact on how much education he or she is likely to achieve. In the United States, minority students receive fewer inferior educational opportunities than white students.
3.1.3. Gender: Historically, women were less likely to attain the same level of educational achievement as their male counterparts even though they were determined to be rated better academically. However, as of late, women are more likely to achieve a higher level of reading and writing proficiency than men and are less likely to drop out of school. Also, there are more women, than men, who are attending post-secondary institutions today.
3.2. The Coleman Study (1982)
3.2.1. One response to the 1982 Coleman Study was that the difference between a private school and public school educational was insignificant. A researcher, Mr. Jencks, used Coleman's findings to compute the estimated yearly average achievement gain by both public and private school students. He estimated that the annual increment attributable to Catholic schooling was very small. He concluded that although there are significant differences in the schools themselves, there is no significant difference in the learning that was achieved.
3.2.2. A second response to the 1982 Coleman Study reflects that where an individual goes to school is footers related to his or her race and socioeconomic background. However, the racial and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individual's race or class. Researchers argue that race and class are predictors of of academic success but the school does not matter. They believe that the gaps in educational achievement are caused by the continuation of segregation in schools. They argue that educational reform must focus on eliminating the high level of segregation and bias that favor white and middle-class students.
4. Chapter 9: Explanations of Educational Inequality
4.1. Cultural Difference Theories
4.1.1. 1. Researchers have examined the relationship between language and educational achievement. Based on an extensive ethnographic study, researcher John Ogbu documents the tensions between the standard English required for academic success and the "slang-English" used in urban communities. Ogbu argues that although African-American students and parents believe it is important for schools to teach standard English, they do not apply this practice within the community. Such ambivalence results in difficulties using standard English and is an important factor in explaining educational inequalities for some students.
4.1.2. 2. Anther type of cultural difference theory sees working-class and nonwhite students as resisting the dominant culture of the schools. From this point of view, these students reject the white middle-class culture of academic success and embrace a different, often anti-school culture. This anti-school culture is opposed to the culture of schooling as it currently exists. This opposition results in higher drop-out rates among high school students.
4.2. School-Centered Explanations
4.2.1. School Financing: Researchers have documented vast differences in funding between affluent public school districts and poorer public school districts. The majority of public school funding comes from property taxes. Since property values are significantly higher in more affluent communities, these communities are able to raise more money through taxation, making it possible to contribute more money per student.
4.2.2. Effective School Research: Researchers have found that there can be differences in academic performance among students who attend schools in the same racial and socioeconomic background. They attribute this to differences among the schools themselves. Research suggests that schools who produce students with high academic achievement have certain characteristics: high student expectations, strong administrative leadership, accountability processes for students and teachers, the monitoring of student learning, and a high degree of instructional time on tasks.
4.2.3. Curriculum and Ability Grouping: As well as differences between schools, there are also differences within schools. The fact that different groups of students in the same schools perform very differently suggests that there may be school characteristics affecting academic outcome. When schools use tracking as a way to instruct their students, many administrators and teachers argue that students are still not being academically challenged. There is no way to challenge the high achieving students and for the low achieving students to flourish.
4.2.4. Gender and Schooling: Schools can generate inequalities through gender discrimination. Although girls usually start school academically and socially ahead of boys, by the end of high school, girls appear to have lower self-esteem and lower aspirations than boys. Some believe the gender composition of a school faculty could be the culprit as most teachers are female, yet most administrators are male. This composition could be sending a message that females are subordinate to males in society.
5. Chapter 10: Educational Reform and School Improvement
5.1. School-based Reforms
5.1.1. School-Business Partnerships: During the 1980's, business leaders became concerned that the nations schools were not producing the graduates necessary to revitalize the U.S. economy. In order to secure the future of U.S. business, many large corporations vowed to aid in the funding of public schools in return for higher test scores and an increased graduation rate.
5.1.2. Teacher Quality: A clear problem in American education is the ability to recruit and retain high quality teachers. According to the No Child Left Behind act, all schools were required to have highly qualified teachers in every classroom. Although most teachers met the necessary requirements, research data showed that a significant number of classrooms were staffed by teachers who were not highly qualified in the subject they taught. This is a result of issue the practice called out-of-field teaching-- teachers being assigned to teach subjects which did not match their education or training. This is a crucial practice because highly qualified teachers actually become highly unqualified in that circumstance.
5.2. Societal, Community, Economic, and Political Reforms
5.2.1. Full Service and Community Schools: Many believe that one way to attack educational inequality is to not only examine and educate the whole child but the whole community. Full service schools provide this opportunity. Full service schools focus on meeting students' and their families educational, physical, psychological, and social needs in a coordinated and collaborative manner between school and community services. Schools serve as community centers that are open extended hours to provide a multitude of services such as adult education, health clinics, recreation facilities, after-school programs, mental health services, drug and alcohol programs, job placement and training programs, and tutoring services.
5.2.2. State Intervention: For several decades, school accountability has been a prominent issue at the forefront of the national education scene. Accountability has taken several forms, often involving state regulation or oversight. It has included state certification of school personnel and districts; statewide testing and assessment of students; state monitoring of district fiscal, management, and educational practices; state dissemination of report cards; and state intervention in the operation of local districts when problems were deemed unmanageable at the local level.
6. Chapter 3: The History of Education
6.1. A major reform movement that won widespread support was the effort to make education available to more children. This movement was led by Horace Mann, "The father of American public school." Wealthy parents sent their children to private schools or hired in-home tutors. Few areas of the country had free public schools. In the west, 60+ children might attend a part-time, one room school house, being taught by a teacher who made little pay. Most children simply did not go to school. In urban areas, children would steal, set fires, or vandalize private property. Reformers believed that education would help children escape poverty and become good citizens. Citizens voted to pay taxes to build better schools, pay teachers higher wages, and establish specialized training centers for teachers. By the mid-1800's, most states had accepted three basic principles regarding public education: public school should be free and supported by tax dollars, teachers should be trained, and children should be required to attend school.
6.2. Democratic-Liberal Interpretation: believe that the history of U.S education involves the development of a school system that is committed to providing an equal educational opportunity for all citizens; reject the belief that that schools are elite institutions, meant only for privileged and wealthy; acknowledged that a more diverse population was able to attend learning institutions for longer periods of time; believe that the U.S educational system most continue to move closer to equality and excellence for all individuals
7. Chapter 4: The Sociology of Education
7.1. Theoretical Perspectives
7.1.1. Functional Theory: views society as a well-oiled machine in which all parts rely on one another to function properly and produce the energy to make society work; schools socialize students and sort them into the appropriate values in order to function in society; believes that educational reform is designed to create curricula and programs that are technically advanced and encourage social unity
7.1.2. Conflict Theory: believes that social order is based on the ability of dominant groups to overpower submissive groups through force, cooptation, and manipulation; views schools as similar to social battlefields where students struggle against teachers and teachers struggle against administrators
7.1.3. Interactional Theory: limits analysis of education to what can be directly observed in the classroom; targets how teacher expectations influence student performance, perceptions, and attitudes
7.2. 5 Effects of Schooling on Individuals
7.2.1. Employment: graduating from college leads students to better employment opportunities as most large organizations require high levels of education to hold upper level, higher paying positions
7.2.2. Teacher Behavior: teachers are role models for their students; set standards for students and influence student self-esteem and sense of efficacy; the use of labels can influence student performance both positively and negatively
7.2.3. Inadequate Schools: children who attend different school systems receive different educational opportunities; urban education has failed to properly educate poor and minority children, however, students in suburban and private schools receive a better educational experience than most
7.2.4. Tracking: refers to the placement of students in curricular programs based on their abilities; directly affects a student's cognitive development and places limits on their opportunity for better educational experiences; students in high-ability tracks have access to better learning material and better teachers whereas students in low-ability tracks experience alienation, authoritarian teachers, and sparse learning material
7.2.5. Gender: schools can generate inequalities through gender discrimination; although girls usually start school academically and socially ahead of boys, by the end of high school, girls appear to have lower self-esteem and lower aspirations than boys; some believe the gender composition of a school faculty could be the culprit as most teachers are female, yet most administrators are male; this composition could be sending a message that females are subordinate to males in society
8. Chapter 5: The Philosophy of Education
8.1. Pragmatism
8.1.1. An approach to philosophy that stresses the importance finding processes that work to reach a desired goal; stresses practical consequences as the necessary components for determining meaning, truth, and value; pragmatists are action oriented, rely on past experiences, and strive for personal goal achievement.
8.1.1.1. Generic Notions: Dewey's pragmatism was founded on behaviorism and was influenced by the theory of evolution and progress. Dewey believed a better society could be achieved through education and schooling would provide children with the essential skills needed to function successfully in this society. Dewey believed that teachers should consider the needs and interests of the students, let the students help plan their own lessons, incorporate group learning, and rely heavily on experiential learning.
8.1.1.2. Key Researchers: Pragmatism was founded by George Sanders Pierce, William James, and John Dewey. Early European philosophers who are classified as pragmatists include Frances Bacon, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
8.1.1.3. Goal of Education: Dewey believed that providing children with an education would help them function in a better society. He believed that schools would have a positive effect on society and help the progression of democracy.
8.1.1.4. Role of the teacher: In a pragmatic setting, the teacher becomes a guide to his or her students. They must provide their students with opportunities to discover and develop as active and independent learners. Teachers are meant to encourage, offer suggestions, and help implement the course of study.
8.1.1.5. Methods of Instruction: Dewey was an advocate for child-inspired learning. They must be inquisitive and question what interests them. He believed that children should learn on their own, but also in groups. Tools such as books, field trips, and learning projects were used to accompany the children's course of study.
8.1.1.6. Curriculum: A pragmatic curriculum should teach students how to think critically. It should be child centered and based on the principles of utility, natural interests, experience, and integration.
9. Chapter 6: Schools as Organizations
9.1. The major stakeholders of my school district: Hartselle City Schools in Hartselle, AL:
9.1.1. Senior Federal Senator: Richard Shelby
9.1.2. Junior Federal Senator: Luther Strange
9.1.3. Federal Representative: Mo Brooks
9.1.4. State Senator: Arthur Orr, District 3
9.1.5. State Representative: Ed Henry, District 9
9.1.6. State Superintendent: Dr. Ed Richardson, Interim
9.1.7. State School Board Representative: Dr. Cynthia S. McCarty
9.1.8. Local Superintendant: Dr. Dee Dee Jones
9.1.9. Local School Board Members: Daxton Maze, Randy Sparkman, Dr. James Joy, DDS., Amy Pace, Venita Jones
9.2. Elements of Change in School Processes and Cultures:
9.2.1. Conflict: In order to democratize schools, previously hidden problems, issues, and disagreements must be addressed. School staff must must be prepared to elicit, manage, and resolve conflicts.
9.2.2. Behaviors: New behaviors must be learned. Change requires communication, trust, collaboration, enabling new leadership, enabling initiative, and conflict resolution.
9.2.3. Team Building: Shared decision making must work out and give on-going attention to relationships within the school staff.
9.2.4. Processes and Content: The process a staff uses is as important as the content of educational change it is trying to implement. The substance of the task depends heavily on the degree of trust and openness built up within the team. Also, the usefulness and visibility of the task will influence future commitments and relationships among the staff, swell as others involved.