Foundations of Education

Foundations of Education by Brandon Smith

1. Progressive Visions

1.1. Progressive visions view the schools as central to solving social problems, essential to the development of individual potential. They believe that the schools should be part of the steady progress to make society better.

2. Traditional Visions

2.1. Traditional visions view schools as a necessity to transmit traditional values of society like hard work, family unity, and individual initiative. Traditionalists believe the schools should pass on the best of what was and what is .

3. Schools as Organizations

4. The Structure of U.S. Education

4.1. Te organization of U.S. schools is complex on several levels. It is unlike any other educational system because it is so decentralized. The U.S. has a separate school system for each state. There are also private school systems, which make it even more complex. The elementary and secondary school system in the U.S. is estimated to have more than 55 million students enrolled from K-12 and cost over $650 billion annually. Public schools are organized into elementary, middle school, and high school. Elementary is from kindergarten to 6th grade. Middle school is 7th and 8th grade. and High school is 9th through 12th grade. Usually students start at age 5 and graduate at 18.

5. France

5.1. The educational system in France is very centralized compared to the U.S. and Great Britain. the central government in France controls the educational system right down to the classroom level. there are two public school systems, one for ordinary people and one for the elite. Efforts to end this system have not been successful. Approximately only one third of 17-18 year olds enroll in some form of higher education, and only about 15% graduate.

6. The Former Soviet Union

6.1. In 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. The end of the Soviet Union has affected the education of children in Russia and surrounding countries. The purpose of education was to create the "new Soviet man and woman." These new men and women were to become the leaders of the proletarian revolution that would transform the Soviet Union into a socialist paradise. In the 1980s it became clear to Soviet leaders and people that the education system was failing to educate students in new skills that were required by technological change and international competition. The system had become so rigid that it no longer provided significant opportunities for upward mobility.

7. Japan

7.1. The first national system of education in Japan was established in the 1880s under the central authority of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture. he Japanese system of education is highly competitive. To be admitted to a prestigious university, students are required to pass examinations that are extremely competitive. This emphasis on achievement and attainment is exemplified by the fact that Japanese students excel in every measured international standard for the 95% of students who graduate from high school. The education system benefits by the work ethic that is entrenched in Japanese culture. Parents have a high regard for the importance of education.

8. Curriculum and Pedagogy

8.1. Traditional approaches to the curriculum have been concerned with the science of the curriculum. these approaches view the curriculum as objective bodies of knowledge and examine how knowledge is designed, taught, and evaluated. Students in teacher education programs are taught to design curriculum using goals and objectives, and to evaluate it in terms of the effectiveness of student learning.

9. History of Philosophy of the Curriculum

9.1. The humanist curriculum reflects the idealist philosophy that knowledge of traditional liberal arts is the cornerstone of education. This curriculum focused on the Western heritage as the basis for intellectual development.

10. The Politics of the Curriculum

10.1. The politics of curriculum analyzes the struggles over different conceptions of what should be taught. Although the controversy over which of the two view is correct has not been settled, we believe that the reality, as in most controversies, lies somewhere in the middle. the U.S. political system allows for participation from many groups, but it also requires a great deal of money and power to successfully affect political decisions. conflicts over curriculum are more likely to occur in public schools than private. Parents who send their children to private schools do so because they support the school's philosophy. However, in public schools, there is rarely agreement about educational matters.

11. Sociology of the Curriculum

11.1. Sociologists of curriculum have focused not only what is taught, but why it is taught. Sociologists reject the objectivist notion that curriculum is value neutral, they view it as a reflection of particular interests within a society. They also believe that the school curriculum includes both what is formally included as the subject matter to be learned, as well as the informal curriculum. The hidden curriculum includes what is taught to students through implicit rules and messages, as well as through what is left out of the formal curriculum. The sociology of the curriculum concentrates on the function of what is taught in schools and its relationship to the role of schools within society.

12. Multicultural Education

12.1. Beginning in the 1980s, critics of the humanist curriculum argued that the traditional curriculum was Eurocentric and male dominated. They argued that the curriculum had to be transformed to represent the varied voices of the groups that make up the United States. A related component of multicultural education is termed culturally relevant pedagogy. Proponents of culturally relevant pedagogy have described a number of characteristics of successful teachers of African- American students, including having high self-esteem and a high regard for others, seeing themselves as part of the community. They believe that all students can succeed. The teacher-student relationship is fluid, extending to interactions beyond the classroom and into the community. The teacher encourages a "community of learners" and encourages students to learn collaboratively.

13. Equality of Opportunity

14. Class

14.1. Students in different social classes have different kinds of educational experiences. Several factors can influence these class-based experiences. For example, Education is very expensive. The longer a student stays in school, the more likely he or she needs parental financial support. This favors wealthier families. From a cultural point of view, schools represent the values of the middle and upper classes, and ignores the working class.

15. Race

15.1. An individual's race has a direct impact on how much education he or she is likely to achieve. Among 16-24 year olds, 5.2% of white students drop out of school, whereas 9.3% of African-American students and 17.6% of Hispanic students are likely to drop out of school. Among 17 year olds, 89% of white students will be able to read at the intermediate level. However, 66% of African-American students have reached the level of reading proficiency and 70% of Hispanic students are reading at the intermediate level.

16. Gender

16.1. Historically, an individual's gender was directly related to their educational attainment. Although women are often rated as being better students than men, in the past they were less likely to attain the same level of education. Today, females are less likely to drop out of school than males, and have a higher reading proficiency. The only area that males outperform females is in math. Overall, males score higher than females on SATs, but women are attending college more than men.

17. The Coleman Study

17.1. Coleman and his associates found that when they compared the average test scores of public schools and private schools, there was not one subject in which public school scored higher than private schools. Coleman argued that private schools were more effective learning environments because they place more emphasis on academic activities and enforce discipline in a way that is consistent with student achievement. They also found that private schools are more effective for low-income students. (Part 2) Where an individual goes to school is often related to race and socioeconomic background, but the racial and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individual's race and class.

18. Educational Inequality

19. Cultural Difference Theories

19.1. Cultural difference theorists agree that there are cultural and family differences between working-class and nonwhite students. Working-class and nonwhite students may arrive at school with different cultural dispositions and without the skills and attitudes required by the school. "African-American children do less well in school because they adapt to their oppressed position in the class and caste structure"-Ogbu. Ogbu suggests that school success requires that African-American students deny their own cultural identities and accept the dominant culture of the schools, which is white middle-class. Thus, African-American students have the "burden of acting white" in order to succeed

20. School Financing

20.1. Jonathan Kozol compared public schools in affluent suburbs with public schools in poor inner cities. He documented the vast differences in funding between the two districts, and called for equalization in school financing. in 2009-2010, significant differences between affluent suburban and poorer urban districts. urban districts were receiving less than $21,000 per student, and affluent school receiving more than $25,000 per student. These differences have remained consistent in most states.

21. Effective School Research

21.1. A climate of high expectations for students. Strong and effective leadership by a principal. Accountability processes for students and teachers. The monitoring of student learning. A high degree of instructional time on task, where teachers spend a great deal of their time teaching and students spend a great deal of their time learning. Flexibility for teachers and administrators to experiment and adapt to new situations and problems.

22. Curriculum and Pedagogic Practices

22.1. Schools in working-class neighborhoods are far more likely to have authoritarian and teacher directed pedagogic practices, and to have a vocationally or social efficiency curriculum. Schools in middle class communities are more likely to have less authoritarian and more student centered pedagogic level. Upper class students are more likely to attend elite private schools, with authoritarian practices.

23. Educational Reform

24. Goals 2000

24.1. Goals 2000 was a direct outgrowth of the state led education reform agenda of the 1980s, which included increasing high school graduation requirements, systemic reform, national standards for content and performance. Opportunity to learn standards. School, parent and community support. Professional developments. Safe, disciplined and drug free schools.

25. No Child Left Behind

25.1. Annual testing is required of students in grades 3-8 in reading and math. And at least 1 test in 10-12. States and districts are required to report school by school data on student test performance, broken out by race, special education, and low income. States must set adequate yearly progress goals for each school. must be 95% participation. The increments in AYP should be arranged so that 100% of students reach proficiency by 2014. Schools that don't meet AYP for 2 years are labeled In Need of Improvement, This means that schools must offer students the option to go to another public school and receive federally funded tutoring. Schools must have "highly qualified" teachers for the core subjects by 2005-2006.

26. Race to the Top

26.1. Adopting standards and assessments that prepare students to succeed in college and the workplace and to compete in the global economy. Building data systems that measure student growth and success and inform teachers and principals about how they can improve instruction. Recruiting, developing, rewarding, and retaining effective teachers and principals , especially where they are needed most. Turning around our lowest achieving schools

27. School to Work Programs

27.1. Relevant education, allowing students to explore different careers and see what skills are required in their working environment. Skills obtained from structured training and work based learning experiences, including necessary skills of a particular career as demonstrated in a working environment. Valued credentials, establishing industry standard benchmarks and developing education and training standards that ensure that proper education is received for each career.

28. Teacher Education

28.1. Attract and retain competent teacher candidates. reorganize the academic and professional components of teacher education programs. They all agree that problems cannot be solved without corresponding changes in teacher education. teacher education programs must be upgraded in terms of their intellectual rigor and focus their need to emphasize the liberal arts. Rigorous standards of entry into the profession must be implemented, and systematic examinations to monitor such entry must be developed. University teacher education programs and schools must be connected in a more systematic and cooperative manner. Career ladders that recognize differences in knowledge, skill, and commitment must be created for teachers. Necessary changes must be made in the schools and the professional lives of teacher in order to attract and retain the most competent candidates for the profession

29. Neo-Marxism

29.1. Modern Marxist theories argue that the role of education in capitalist societies is to reproduce the economic, social, and political status quo. They think that schools often reproduce the dominant ideology. They believe individuals have the power to shape their own world and change it. They believe that the process of education contains tools to enable individual to understand the weaknesses in the dominant ideology and to construct alternative visions and possibilities. The teacher must become a "Transformative intellectual" whose role is to engage their students in a critical examination of the world. While the student seeks to examine critically the society and its problems and to seek radical alternatives. Neo-Marxists favor a dialectical approach to instruction, with the question and answer method designed to move the student to new levels of awareness and ultimately to change. They believe that curriculum is not objective or value free but is socially constructed. This suggests that the curriculum is the organized and codified representation of what those with the power to shape it want the children to know.

30. Existentialism and Phenomenology

30.1. Teachers must understand their own "lived worlds" as well as that of their students to help them achieve the best "lived worlds" they can. They view learning as intensely personal. They believe that each child has a different learning style and it is up to the teacher to discover what works for each child. The role of the teacher is to help students understand the world through posing questions, generating activities, and working together. They like curriculum heavily biased toward the humanities.

31. Pragmatism

31.1. Dewey's vision of schools was rooted in the social order; he did not see ideas as separate from social conditions. He believed that school had the power to improve social order. In a progressive setting, the teacher is no longer the authoritarian figure from which all knowledge flows. The teacher encourages, offers suggestions, questions, and helps plan and implement courses of study. Dewey proposed children learn both individually and in groups.

32. Realists

32.1. Realists tend to focus on science and philosophy. Teachers should have solid grounding in science, math, and the humanities. The point of the teacher is to enable students to learn objective methods of evaluating works. Realists support lectures, and question and answers. They support competency based assessment as a way of ensuring that students learn what they are being taught. Curriculum consists of Science, Math, reading, writing, and the humanities.

33. Idealism

33.1. Educators who believe in idealism are interested in the search for truth through ideas rather than through testing. Students are encouraged to discuss analyze, synthesize, and apply what they have read to contemporary society. Students are also encouraged to work in groups or individually. Idealists place great importance on the study of classics. The idealist teacher sees themselves as a role model in the classroom.

34. Employment

34.1. Graduating college will lead to greater employment opportunities. However, credential inflation has led to the expectation among employers that their employees will have an ever increasing amount of formal education. Surprisingly most research has shown that the amount of education is weakly related to job performance. Schools act as gatekeepers in determining who will get employed in high status occupations, but schools do not provide significant job skills for their graduates. People learn how do their jobs, by doing them.

35. Interactional Theories

35.1. Interactional theories about the relation of school and society primarily critiques functional and conflict perspectives. They say that functional and conflict theories are very abstract, and emphasize structure and process at a very general level of analysis. Interactional theories attempt to make the commonplace strange by turning on their heads everyday taken for granted behaviors and interactions between students and teacher.

36. Conflict Theories

36.1. Not all sociologists of education believe that society is held together by shared values. Some argue that social order is not based on some collective agreement, but on the ability of dominant groups to impose their will on smaller groups. Conflict sociologists do not see the relation between school and society as unproblematic or straightforward. They emphasize struggle, everyone struggles against one another.

37. Functional Theories

37.1. Functional sociologists stresses interdependence of the social system.Functionalists view society as a machine, one part articulates with another to produce the dynamic energy required to make society work

38. The relation between School and Society

38.1. Schools, parents, churches and synagogues shaped children's perceptions of the world by processes of socialization. Not only do schools shape students' perceptions and consciousness but they also act as important sorters and selectors of students. Schools influence the long term social, economic, and cultural destinies of children. Schools play a major role in who gets ahead in life, and who doesn't.

39. The Emergence of the Public High School

39.1. Prior to 1875 fewer than 25,000 students were enrolled in public high schools. Most of those that were in some form of secondary education attended private academies. Between 1880 and 1920 2,382,542 students attended public high schools. And by 1940 around 6.5 million students attended public high school.

40. Education for African Americans

40.1. Preceding the Civil War, education for African-Americans was severely limited. Southerners believed that literacy bred insubordination and revolution, and forbid the teaching of reading and writing to the slave population. In 1868 the Freedman's Bureau helped to establish historically Black Colleges

41. Education for Women

41.1. Traditionally the role of a woman in Western society had been the homemaker for the man who provided. Education was viewed as biologically harmful or too stressful. Few females achieved an education other than rudimentary literacy and numeracy. by the middle of the nineteenth century a significant number of girls attended elementary schools and admitted to private academies

42. The Rise of the Common School

42.1. In 1820 it had become apparent that education was not working very well. Where as the vast majority of Americans were not illiterate, however towns neglected their duties to provide opportunities in education.

43. Radical Perspective

43.1. The radical perspective does not believe that free market capitalism is the best form of economics, but believes that socialism is the best economic system. They believe that the government is responsible for supplying food, shelter, and healthcare for all of its citizens. They believe that capitalism is the center of social problems, but they realize that most people strongly support it and that its not going to change. They believe that the structure of society is the cause of social problems, not individuals. Conservatives and many liberals agree that the fall of the Soviet Union is evidence for the superiority of capitalism.

44. Liberal Perspective

44.1. The liberal perspective gets its philosophy from John Dewey. Liberalism believes that the free market is unfair to groups who are disadvantaged economically and politically. It believes that government involvement is necessary to ensure fair treatment of all citizens. Liberals think that the role of the government is to make sure equality of opportunity exists. Liberals also believe that individual effort is insufficient and that the government must intervene for those in need

45. Conservative Perspective

45.1. The conservative perspective comes from Social Darwinism. Darwinism believes that individuals must adapt to survive changes in the environment. Conservatism also believes that the free market is the best system for competition and freedom. It allows for the maximization of economic growth and individual liberty. The conservative view of social problems puts emphasis on the individual to find solutions to problems that best fits the individuals needs.

46. The History of Education

47. Politics in Education

48. Sociology of Education

49. Philosophies of Education

50. Great Britain

50.1. Before the nineteenth century the education of children in Great Britain was considered to be a responsibility of parents. During the nineteenth century most of the schools were operated by religious organizations. The 1870 Education Act led to the beginning of a national system. Although there were many attempts to reform this system, it was not until the 1944 Education Act that a truly national system of education was established as part of an "integrated public service welfare state".