1. Philosophy of Education
1.1. pragmatism
1.1.1. generic notions
1.1.1.1. Was founded on the new psychology, behaviorism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Ideas were influenced by the theory of evolution and by an eighteenth century optimistic belief in progress. This meant the attainment of a better society through education.
1.1.2. key researchers
1.1.2.1. John Dewey
1.1.2.2. John Locke
1.1.3. goal of education
1.1.4. role of teacher
1.1.5. method of instruction
1.1.6. curriculum
2. History of U.S. Education
2.1. historical interpretation
2.1.1. the democratic-liberal school
2.1.1.1. Democratic liberals believe that the history of U.S education involves the progressive evolution, of a school system committed to providing equality of opportunity for all.
2.2. reform movement
2.2.1. Brown v. Board of Education
2.2.1.1. Brown v. Board of Education (1954), unanimously held that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Although the decision did not succeed in fully desegregating public education in the United States, it put the Constitution on the side of racial equality and jolted the budding civil rights movement into a full on revolution.
3. Schools as Organizations
3.1. Major Stakeholders
3.1.1. Federal Senators and Representatives
3.1.1.1. Senators
3.1.1.1.1. Richard Shelby (R)
3.1.1.1.2. Luther Strange (D)
3.1.1.2. House of Representatives
3.1.1.2.1. Bradley Byrne
3.1.1.2.2. Martha Roy
3.1.1.2.3. Mike Rodgers
3.1.1.2.4. Robert Aderholt
3.1.1.2.5. Mo Brooks
3.1.1.2.6. Gary Palmer
3.1.1.2.7. Terri Sewell
3.1.2. State Superintendent
3.1.2.1. Michael Sentance
3.1.3. State Senators and Representatives
3.1.3.1. Senator
3.1.3.1.1. Arthur Orr (R)
3.1.3.2. House of Representatives
3.1.3.2.1. Micky Hammon
3.1.3.2.2. Ken Johnson
3.1.3.2.3. Terri Collins
3.1.3.2.4. Ed Henry
3.1.3.2.5. Randall Shedd
3.1.4. State School Board Representative
3.1.4.1. Cynthia McCarty
3.1.5. Local Superintendent
3.1.5.1. Dr. Michael Douglas
3.1.6. School Board
3.1.6.1. Michelle Gray King
3.1.6.2. Peggy Baggett
3.1.6.3. Karen Duke
3.1.6.4. Dwight Jett
3.1.6.5. Donnie Lane
3.2. Elements of Change
3.2.1. School Processes
3.2.2. School Cultures
4. Sociological Perspectives
4.1. relationship between school and society
4.1.1. functionalism
4.1.1.1. The functionalist theory focuses on the ways that universal education serves the needs of society. Functionalists first see education in its manifest role: conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation. Emile Durkheim, the founder of functionalist theory, identified the latent role of education as one of socializing people into society's mainstream.
4.1.2. conflict theory
4.1.2.1. Conflict theory sees the purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society. Conflict theorists examine the same functions of education as functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society; however, conflict theorists see the educational system as maintaining the existing condition by lessening the lower classes into being obedient workers.
4.1.3. interactionalism
4.1.3.1. Interactionists limit their analysis of education to what they directly observe happening in the classroom. They focus on how teacher expectations influence student performance, perceptions, and attitudes.
4.2. five effects of schooling on individuals
4.2.1. knowledge and attitudes
4.2.1.1. It has been found that the higher the social class background of the student, the higher his or her achievement level. According to research by Coleman and Jencks, differences between schools account for very little differences in achievement.
4.2.2. employment
4.2.2.1. Research has shown that large organizations, such as corporations, require high levels of education for white collar, managerial, or administrative jobs. However, most research has shown that the amount of education of an individual is weakly related to job performance.
4.2.3. education and mobility
4.2.3.1. The belief that occupational and social mobility began at the schoolhouse door is a critical component of the American ethos. As part of what might be termed civil religion, there is an abiding faith among most Americans that education is the "great equalizer" in the great status race.
4.2.4. teacher behavior
4.2.4.1. Teachers have a huge impact on student learning and behavior. Teachers must wear many different occupational hats. These various roles are sometimes compatible and sometimes they are not. This can lead to role strain.
4.2.5. student peer groups alienation
4.2.5.1. In most student culture athletic ability, looks, and style are idealized. When a student is not part of a certain group or is labeled a certain way it can leave them feeling alienated and can even lead to violence.
5. Curriculum & Pedagogy
5.1. Humanist Curriculum
5.1.1. Reflects the idealist philosophy that knowledge of the traditional liberal arts is the cornerstone of an educated citizenry and that the purpose of education is to present to students the best of what has been thought and written. Traditionally, this curriculum focused on the Western heritage as the basis for intellectual development, although some who support this type of curriculum argue that the liberal arts need not focus exclusively on the Western tradition.
5.2. Dominant Traditions of Teaching
5.2.1. Mimetic Tradition
5.2.1.1. Based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to transmit specific knowledge to students. Thus, the best method of doing this is through what is termed the didactic method, a method that commonly relies on the lecture or presentation as the main form of communication. At the heart of this tradition is the assumption that the educational process involves the relationship between the knower and the learner, and that education is the process of transferring information from one to the other.
5.2.2. Transformative Tradition
5.2.2.1. Rests on a different set of assumptions about the teaching and learning process. Although learning information makes the student different that he or she was before, this model defines the function of education more broadly and, according to some, more ambiguously. Simply put, proponents of this tradition believe that the purpose of education is to change the student in some meaningful way, including intellectually, creatively, spiritually, and emotionally.
6. Equality of Opportunity
6.1. Impacts on Educational Outcomes
6.1.1. Race
6.1.1.1. That race is related to educational outcomes is undeniable, although, given the nature of US society, it is extremely difficult to separate race from class. In a society as segregated as that in the United States, it is not surprising that minority students receive fewer and inferior educational opportunities than white students. Explanations as to why minorities underachieve compared to whites vary. But, at one level, the answer is not terribly complex. Minorities do not receive the same educational opportunities as whites, and their rewards for educational attainment are significantly less.
6.1.2. Gender
6.1.2.1. Historically, an individual's gender was directly related to his or her educational attainment. Even though women are often rated as being better students than men, in the past they were less likely to attain the same level of education. Today, females are less likely to drop out of school than males, and more likely to have a higher level of reading proficiency than males. The same is true for writing. The one area that males outperform females is in mathematics.
6.1.3. Class
6.1.3.1. Students in different social classes have different kinds of educational experiences. There are several factors that can influence these class-based experiences. For instance, education is extremely expensive. The longer a student stays in school, the more likely he or she needs parental financial support. Obviously, this situation favors wealthier families. Families from the upper class and the middle class are also more likely to expect their children to finish school, whereas working-class and underclass families often have lower levels expectation for their children. From a cultural point of view, schools represent the values of the middle and upper class.
6.2. Responses to Coleman Study
6.2.1. Where an individual goes to school is often related to her race and socioeconomic background, but the radical and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individual's race and class.
6.2.2. Differences that do exist between public and Catholic schools are statistically significant, but in terms of significant differences in learning, the results are negligible. Subsequent studies that have compared public and private schools have also found that private schools "do it better", particularly for low income students.
7. Educational Inequality
7.1. Cultural Differences Theory
7.1.1. African-American children do less well in school because they adapt to their oppressed position in the class and caste structure. Ogbu argued that there is a "job ceiling" for African-Americans in the united States, as there is for similar caste- like minorities in other countries, and that African-American families and schools socialize their children to deal with their inferior life chances rather than encourage them to internalize those values and skills necessary for positions that will not be open to them.
7.1.2. A second type of cultural difference theory sees working-class and nonwhite students as resisting the dominant culture of the schools. From this point of view, these students reject the white middle-class culture of academic success and embrace a different, often anti-school culture - one that is opposed to the culture of schooling as it currently exists.
7.2. School Centered Explanations
7.2.1. School Financing
7.2.1.1. Public schools are financed through a combination of revenues from local, state, an federal sources. However, the majority of funds come from state and local taxes, with local property taxes a significant source. Since property values are significantly higher in more affluent communities, these communities are able to raise significantly more money for schools through this form of taxation than poorer communities with lower property values.
7.2.2. Effective School Research
7.2.2.1. There are school centered processes that help to explain unequal educational achievement by different groups of students. This supports the work of Coleman.
7.2.3. Effective School Literature
7.2.3.1. This is cited as the key to school improvement. Having the proper textbooks to learn is essential.
7.2.4. Between School Differences
7.2.4.1. This is explained as where the school is physically located. A poor school in an inadequate community will suffer from educational inequality (lower socioeconomic neighborhoods).
8. Educational Reform
8.1. School Based Reforms
8.1.1. School Choice
8.1.1.1. Congressional Support for greater school choice was expressed in the bill that the House of Representatives passed in 1990. It is very controversial because it is political and rests on a set of assumptions that educational marketplaces and private schools are questionable. Two types of school choice are intersectional and intrasectional.
8.1.2. Voucher Programs
8.1.2.1. Adopted in 2004, voucher programs, provides low income parents with the same choices as middle class parents and they lead to increased parental satisfaction with their children's schools.
8.2. Political Reforms
8.2.1. School Accountability
8.2.1.1. School Accountability involves teachers being certified by the state and includes other personnel. State accountability focuses rewards or sanctions.
8.2.2. Mayoral Control
8.2.2.1. Mayoral Control is a favorable neo liberal reform. It eliminates corruption and leads to effective management. It also results in improvements in student achievement.
9. The Politics of Education
9.1. Four Purposes of Education
9.1.1. Intellectual
9.1.1.1. The intellectual purposes of school are to teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics; to transmit specific knowledge and to help students acquire higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.
9.1.2. Political
9.1.2.1. The political purposes of schooling are to inculcate allegiance to the existing political order; to prepare citizens who will participate in this political order; to help assimilate diverse cultural cultural groups into a common political order; and to teach children the basic laws of society.
9.1.3. Economic
9.1.3.1. The economic purposes of schooling are are to prepare students for their later occupational roles and to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor. The degree to which schools directly prepare students for work varies from society to society, but most schools have an indirect role in this process.
9.1.4. Social
9.1.4.1. The social purposes of schooling are to help solve social problems; to work as one of many institutions, such as the family and the church to ensure social cohesion; and to socialize children into the various roles, behaviors, and values of the society.
9.2. Perspectives
9.2.1. the role of the school
9.2.1.1. The conservative perspective sees the role of the school as providing the necessary educational training to ensure that the most talented and hard-working individuals receive the tools necessary to maximize economic and social productivity.
9.2.2. explanations of unequal performance
9.2.2.1. Conservatives feel that individuals or groups of students rise and fall on their own intelligence, hard work , and initiative, and that achievement is based on hard work and and sacrifice.
9.2.3. definition of educations problems
9.2.3.1. Conservatives believe in the decline of standards, decline of cultural literacy, decline of values or of civilization, and the decline of authority.